0:00:03 > 0:00:07Music, one of the most dazzling fruits of human civilisation,
0:00:07 > 0:00:10is today a massive global phenomenon.
0:00:10 > 0:00:14And so it's hard for us to imagine a time when, in centuries
0:00:14 > 0:00:18gone by, people could go weeks without hearing any music at all.
0:00:18 > 0:00:22Even in the 19th century, you might hear your favourite symphony four or
0:00:22 > 0:00:24five times in your whole lifetime,
0:00:24 > 0:00:26in the days before music could be recorded.
0:00:26 > 0:00:28MUSIC: "Poker Face" by Lady Gaga
0:00:32 > 0:00:35The story of music, successive waves of discoveries, breakthroughs
0:00:35 > 0:00:38and inventions, is an ongoing process.
0:00:39 > 0:00:43The next great leap forward may take place in a back street
0:00:43 > 0:00:46of Beijing, or upstairs in a pub in South Shields.
0:01:04 > 0:01:06Whatever music you're into -
0:01:06 > 0:01:08Monteverdi or Mantovani,
0:01:08 > 0:01:10Mozart or Motown,
0:01:10 > 0:01:12Machaut or mash-up -
0:01:12 > 0:01:15the techniques it relies on didn't happen by accident.
0:01:15 > 0:01:18Someone, somewhere, thought of them first.
0:01:26 > 0:01:29Music can make us weep or make us dance,
0:01:29 > 0:01:33it's reflected the times in which it was written, it has delighted,
0:01:33 > 0:01:35challenged, comforted and excited us.
0:01:37 > 0:01:41In this series, I've been tracing the story of music from scratch.
0:01:41 > 0:01:44To follow it on its miraculous journey, misleading jargon
0:01:44 > 0:01:46and fancy labels are best put to one side.
0:01:51 > 0:01:54Instead, try to imagine how revolutionary,
0:01:54 > 0:01:57and how exhilarating, many of the innovations
0:01:57 > 0:02:01we take for granted today were to people at the time.
0:02:01 > 0:02:05There are a million ways of telling the story of music - this is mine.
0:02:21 > 0:02:24So far in this series, we've travelled from cave men with
0:02:24 > 0:02:28their bone flutes, to the Industrial Age where large orchestras
0:02:28 > 0:02:34and frenetic pianists shook the bones of their weak-kneed audiences.
0:02:34 > 0:02:37We've followed the leisurely unfolding of musical innovations in
0:02:37 > 0:02:40the medieval period, up to the point in the 18th
0:02:40 > 0:02:44and early 19th century, where they're coming at us thick and fast.
0:02:44 > 0:02:50By 1850, music's on fire and things have got grand, gutsy and gory.
0:03:00 > 0:03:04Supernatural love, destiny, death and immortality weren't
0:03:04 > 0:03:09invented in our own vampire-obsessed 21st century.
0:03:09 > 0:03:13The whole tragic love-and-fate thing became an obsession like no
0:03:13 > 0:03:16other for composers in the second half of the 19th century.
0:03:17 > 0:03:21They let loose a tidal wave of emotional roller coasters
0:03:21 > 0:03:26that left their audiences in a state of exhausted, bewildered arousal.
0:03:27 > 0:03:32In fact, it's hard to find a piece of music written between 1850
0:03:32 > 0:03:35and 1900, that isn't about death and/or destiny.
0:03:43 > 0:03:47If you were looking for a starting point for this death and destiny
0:03:47 > 0:03:50craze in music, you could do a lot worse than a piece of music written
0:03:50 > 0:03:57by a deluded, brilliant, emotionally unstable French composer in 1829.
0:03:57 > 0:04:00The composer in question was a kind of cross between Beethoven
0:04:00 > 0:04:02and Lord Byron.
0:04:02 > 0:04:05His name was Hector Berlioz, his ground-breaking piece,
0:04:05 > 0:04:07Symphonie Fantastique.
0:04:20 > 0:04:24Berlioz's inspiration for his Fantastical Symphony was
0:04:24 > 0:04:27the legend of Faust, the intellectual who sells
0:04:27 > 0:04:32his soul to the devil in return for both knowledge and earthly pleasure.
0:04:33 > 0:04:36Here was a handy metaphor for the tormented,
0:04:36 > 0:04:41misunderstood genius whose gifts separated him from ordinary mortals.
0:04:41 > 0:04:45No wonder so many 19th century composers were attracted to
0:04:45 > 0:04:47the idea, like moths to a flame.
0:05:08 > 0:05:12Berlioz was definitely separated from ordinary mortals,
0:05:12 > 0:05:15he was a borderline psychopath.
0:05:15 > 0:05:19But the music that poured forth as catharsis from his troubled mind
0:05:19 > 0:05:22was immensely influential on all the other composers of the century.
0:05:22 > 0:05:25Apart from anything else, he legitimised the idea that
0:05:25 > 0:05:30being isolated and mad were the best qualifications for being a composer.
0:05:32 > 0:05:35The French and Germans delved further into this morose
0:05:35 > 0:05:39and misanthropic frame of mind as the 19th century wore on,
0:05:39 > 0:05:42as we'll see.
0:05:42 > 0:05:44Thank goodness, then, for Italian Opera.
0:05:59 > 0:06:03In Italy, tragedy in opera wasn't caused by pacts with the devil,
0:06:03 > 0:06:06but bad behaviour by humans.
0:06:06 > 0:06:07Well, men.
0:06:27 > 0:06:30In 19th-century Italy, opera was a popular art form.
0:06:30 > 0:06:33I don't mean popular as in some people quite liked it,
0:06:33 > 0:06:36I mean popular as in everyone either went to,
0:06:36 > 0:06:39or knew the songs from the latest operas.
0:06:39 > 0:06:42If you lived in Turin, or Milan or Naples in 1850,
0:06:42 > 0:06:45opera was your iTunes.
0:06:45 > 0:06:48I know this seems strange when you think of modern day opera,
0:06:48 > 0:06:52with seats costing a 100 quid plus, and posh folk in DJs, but for
0:06:52 > 0:06:57all of the 1800s, in Italy, opera was the people's entertainment.
0:06:58 > 0:06:59IN ITALIAN:
0:07:17 > 0:07:21The giant who bestrode Italian opera in the last half
0:07:21 > 0:07:24of the 19th century was Giuseppe Verdi.
0:07:24 > 0:07:29Verdi remained at the top of his game from his first hit in 1842,
0:07:29 > 0:07:34Nabucco, to his last, Falstaff, an astonishing 51 years later.
0:07:36 > 0:07:40Throughout his long and gloriously successful career of 28 operas,
0:07:40 > 0:07:42Verdi managed to convey
0:07:42 > 0:07:46often complex emotions and plots in an easy-to-grasp,
0:07:46 > 0:07:48enchanting-to-sing Italian vocal style,
0:07:48 > 0:07:52so that ordinary folk really could leave the theatre humming the tunes.
0:08:16 > 0:08:20People who couldn't afford a ticket soon heard the big hits.
0:08:20 > 0:08:22Barrel organists and other itinerant musicians would
0:08:22 > 0:08:25hang around the theatres, learn the tunes,
0:08:25 > 0:08:29and make a living playing them for punters in the street the next day.
0:08:29 > 0:08:32This was the mid-19th century equivalent of a juke box.
0:08:35 > 0:08:40But even Verdi himself got caught up in death-and-destiny fever.
0:08:40 > 0:08:43To this already inflammatory mix, Verdi added sex.
0:08:45 > 0:08:48Take La Traviata, first performed in 1853.
0:08:48 > 0:08:52It's about a doomed love affair, climaxing in the tragic death,
0:08:52 > 0:08:56from TB, of the once promiscuous female protagonist, Violetta.
0:08:57 > 0:09:00Based on a recently published best seller,
0:09:00 > 0:09:04The Lady Of The Camellias, by Alexandre Dumas,
0:09:04 > 0:09:05it was a huge hit.
0:09:06 > 0:09:09Of course, stories like The Lady of the Camellias
0:09:09 > 0:09:12allowed Victorian audiences to have their cake and eat it,
0:09:12 > 0:09:17to enjoy being spectators of what they thought of as lewd behaviour,
0:09:17 > 0:09:20then have their hypocritical morals endorsed
0:09:20 > 0:09:24by seeing the naughty woman who indulged in it die a horrible death.
0:09:24 > 0:09:28Not before she's broken their defenceless hearts, mind,
0:09:28 > 0:09:32with a farewell of choking beauty.
0:09:32 > 0:09:35IN ITALIAN:
0:10:36 > 0:10:41La Traviata is accessible, tuneful and melodramatic.
0:10:43 > 0:10:47But its aim is to force its audience to confront its own prejudices
0:10:47 > 0:10:50and double standards.
0:10:50 > 0:10:54It's no coincidence that the figure of the fallen woman stalks
0:10:54 > 0:10:56through so many operas,
0:10:56 > 0:10:59novels and paintings of the second half of the 19th century.
0:10:59 > 0:11:03With increased male, middle-class spending power,
0:11:03 > 0:11:06came astonishing levels of prostitution.
0:11:22 > 0:11:27La Traviata confronts this male, sexual hypocrisy that every
0:11:27 > 0:11:31woman had her price and yet should be condemned for it.
0:11:31 > 0:11:33Except in the theatre.
0:11:33 > 0:11:35CHEERING AND APPLAUSE
0:11:39 > 0:11:44So solid was the foundation Verdi created for populist Italian opera,
0:11:44 > 0:11:46that he was able to hand over the torch to
0:11:46 > 0:11:51composers like Leoncavallo, Mascagni and especially Puccini,
0:11:51 > 0:11:54who carried it right into the 20th century.
0:11:54 > 0:11:57If it had been left to the Italians, classical music would have
0:11:57 > 0:12:01made it to the modern age without so much as a scratch.
0:12:01 > 0:12:03Still completely mainstream, still loved by everyone.
0:12:03 > 0:12:07But some combustible Berlioz fans, north of the Alps,
0:12:07 > 0:12:09took over the helm of the ship while Verdi wasn't looking,
0:12:09 > 0:12:13and all hell broke loose, and I mean hell.
0:12:51 > 0:12:53Outside Italy,
0:12:53 > 0:12:56music in the second half of the 19th century was totally dominated
0:12:56 > 0:13:00by a French-speaking Hungarian, born in what is now Austria.
0:13:00 > 0:13:03I'm talking about Franz Liszt, yes Liszt.
0:13:03 > 0:13:06His music may not be as well known these days
0:13:06 > 0:13:08as Brahms, Tchaikovsky or Wagner, but he was the guy
0:13:08 > 0:13:13all other composers, including those three, looked up to.
0:13:13 > 0:13:17He was the trail-blazer, the experimenter, the pace-setter.
0:13:35 > 0:13:39To do full justice to the death-and-destiny obsession,
0:13:39 > 0:13:42music needed to be turbo-charged,
0:13:42 > 0:13:46and Liszt was the man who provided the rocket fuel.
0:13:46 > 0:13:49Disturbing emotions were conjured up in his harmonies,
0:13:49 > 0:13:52flashy set-pieces thrilled and terrified
0:13:52 > 0:13:54a sensation-seeking public.
0:13:54 > 0:13:58Liszt was the composer who, more than anyone else
0:13:58 > 0:14:02in the 19th century recalibrated music's forces.
0:14:02 > 0:14:05So it's worth looking in detail at some of the many innovations
0:14:05 > 0:14:07he brought to fruition.
0:14:08 > 0:14:11Liszt innovation, number one -
0:14:11 > 0:14:13"The Devil has all the best tunes".
0:14:25 > 0:14:27Liszt's Totentanz, "Death Dance",
0:14:27 > 0:14:31triggered a craze for extravagantly ghoulish, Halloween-style music,
0:14:31 > 0:14:35full of dark, deep, crashing chords and abrasive strings.
0:14:41 > 0:14:43It's a craze that has yet to abate.
0:14:43 > 0:14:47The legacy of this kind of up-tempo theatre of the macabre didn't
0:14:47 > 0:14:49just inspire composers of the period,
0:14:49 > 0:14:52like Saint-Saens with his Danse Macabre...
0:15:04 > 0:15:05..or Grieg's March Of The Trolls.
0:15:12 > 0:15:15But also film composers of our own time,
0:15:15 > 0:15:17like the spookily brilliant Danny Elfman.
0:15:25 > 0:15:26In Batman, directed by Tim Burton,
0:15:26 > 0:15:29edge-of-the-seat action sequences are given
0:15:29 > 0:15:33an undercurrent of avenging menace by Elfman's Lisztian score.
0:15:35 > 0:15:39But Liszt's creepy death dance wasn't the only musical trick
0:15:39 > 0:15:41up his sleeve.
0:15:41 > 0:15:44Liszt innovation number two - "All the fun of the Fair".
0:15:46 > 0:15:50Liszt was a spectacular pianist who more or less single-handedly -
0:15:50 > 0:15:51or should that be two-handedly? -
0:15:51 > 0:15:55forced piano builders to adopt iron frames to replace wood frames
0:15:55 > 0:15:59because they simply broke under the hammering he gave them on stage.
0:16:18 > 0:16:21Liszt dazzled audiences with his use of the piano as a kind
0:16:21 > 0:16:23of fairground of effects.
0:16:31 > 0:16:34This is Liszt in lighter, crowd-pleasing mode.
0:16:36 > 0:16:40His Grand Galop provided the template for Offenbach's
0:16:40 > 0:16:43hallmark Can-Cans of 20 years later.
0:17:17 > 0:17:20In his thirties, Liszt became music's first international star.
0:17:29 > 0:17:31Some female fans became hysterical
0:17:31 > 0:17:35at the mere sight of him on the stage.
0:17:35 > 0:17:39But showy turns were only a fraction of what Liszt could do at the piano.
0:17:39 > 0:17:43Liszt Innovation number three - "First Impressions".
0:17:43 > 0:17:46He created a style that shimmered and gleamed,
0:17:46 > 0:17:51an aural equivalent of the blurred vibrancy of a painting by Monet,
0:17:51 > 0:17:56where sounds, like colours, melted and smudged into each other.
0:18:06 > 0:18:10This sparkling piece was written just three years after the first
0:18:10 > 0:18:15impressionist exhibition had taken place in Paris, in 1874.
0:18:53 > 0:18:57Liszt's incandescent paintings in sound were to be hugely
0:18:57 > 0:19:00influential on a younger generation of French composers,
0:19:00 > 0:19:02particularly Claude Debussy.
0:19:05 > 0:19:09Debussy's glimmering piano pictures owe a huge debt to Liszt,
0:19:09 > 0:19:11whom he revered, like a disciple.
0:19:35 > 0:19:39Liszt's contribution to orchestral music was equally immense.
0:19:40 > 0:19:43Liszt innovation number four - "Symphonic Poems".
0:19:44 > 0:19:47He invented what he called the symphonic poem
0:19:47 > 0:19:51and wrote 13 of them to get the new form off to a cracking start.
0:20:12 > 0:20:15This is Liszt's symphonic poem, Prometheus,
0:20:15 > 0:20:20inspired by the Greek myth in which the Titan, Prometheus, steals
0:20:20 > 0:20:23fire from Zeus to give to mankind.
0:20:23 > 0:20:26He's punished by being bound to a rock,
0:20:26 > 0:20:32while a great eagle snacks on his liver, every dawn for eternity.
0:20:32 > 0:20:34Pain and anguish saturate the music.
0:20:39 > 0:20:43The idea behind Liszt's symphonic poems was to reduce
0:20:43 > 0:20:48the traditional four movement symphony, as perfected by Beethoven,
0:20:48 > 0:20:51into one concentrated shorter piece that would be a musical
0:20:51 > 0:20:54response to a non-musical artwork.
0:20:56 > 0:21:00By doing this, Liszt was moving away from the idea of music
0:21:00 > 0:21:04as an abstract entity of its own, where audiences listened attentively
0:21:04 > 0:21:08to 40 minutes of pure music, like doing a crossword or a brain-teaser.
0:21:08 > 0:21:12His symphonic poems took just one scene,
0:21:12 > 0:21:15a character or a snapshot, and wove the music around that.
0:21:21 > 0:21:25It was Liszt more than anyone who shifted the emphasis
0:21:25 > 0:21:28away from orchestral music as pure music,
0:21:28 > 0:21:31to music that tried to illustrate something else.
0:21:31 > 0:21:35This, for example, is the opening of his symphonic poem -
0:21:35 > 0:21:39Hunnenschlacht, the one inspired by a then famous mural
0:21:39 > 0:21:41of Attila the Hun's many battles.
0:21:43 > 0:21:48Fought in 451 AD, against the now Christian Roman Empire
0:21:48 > 0:21:52and their allies, this was a rare example in which Attila
0:21:52 > 0:21:55and his heathen Huns got a sound thrashing.
0:22:02 > 0:22:06Liszt's musical response to the painting attempts to depict
0:22:06 > 0:22:09the ghostly armies of the battle mustering for the fight.
0:22:12 > 0:22:16Interspersed amongst the whispery strings are military
0:22:16 > 0:22:18outbursts from the horns.
0:22:24 > 0:22:27You'll notice in the painting that there are relatively few
0:22:27 > 0:22:30actual soldiers depicted, it's more ordinary men
0:22:30 > 0:22:33and women who've been engulfed unwittingly in the conflict.
0:22:33 > 0:22:37So Liszt is careful not to make his orchestra sound too percussive
0:22:37 > 0:22:39and martial, at least to start off with.
0:22:39 > 0:22:42Eventually the battle proper kicks off, and if you look closely,
0:22:42 > 0:22:47you'll see the Romans carrying a gleaming golden cross.
0:22:47 > 0:22:49In the midst of the battles tumult and chaos,
0:22:49 > 0:22:53Liszt introduces on the trombones an old, plain song chant,
0:22:53 > 0:22:58Crux Fidelis, "Faithful Cross", to represent this image in the scene.
0:23:06 > 0:23:09The final three minutes or so of the piece has the plain song
0:23:09 > 0:23:13theme interwoven into increasingly excited strings.
0:23:18 > 0:23:21Liszt rounds off his musical account of the painting
0:23:21 > 0:23:24with storming victory music,
0:23:24 > 0:23:27complete with extra brass reinforcements and a pipe organ.
0:23:31 > 0:23:33With the instruction, "If it can't be louder
0:23:33 > 0:23:36than the whole orchestra, don't bother!"
0:23:39 > 0:23:43This was music on a grander supercharged scale than had
0:23:43 > 0:23:46ever been heard before, and when younger composers like Wagner
0:23:46 > 0:23:49and Tchaikovsky heard it, it thrilled and inspired them.
0:23:49 > 0:23:53For an audience in a concert hall it was equally awesome.
0:23:53 > 0:23:57Liszt was setting a standard for everyone else to meet.
0:23:57 > 0:23:59If the atmosphere of the final climax
0:23:59 > 0:24:02sounds familiar to you, here's why.
0:24:02 > 0:24:06It's exactly the sort of grandiose and hyper-ventilated music
0:24:06 > 0:24:09you'll have heard over the years in countless movies.
0:24:25 > 0:24:30In Cecil B De Mille's epic, The Ten Commandments, made in 1956,
0:24:30 > 0:24:34Moses parting the Red Sea wouldn't be half as thrilling without
0:24:34 > 0:24:36Elmer Bernstein's stirring score.
0:24:43 > 0:24:47Liszt's symphonic poems, where the music conjures up the drama
0:24:47 > 0:24:52of a scene is where the technique of how one might score a film began.
0:24:54 > 0:24:56And Liszt was also ahead of the curve
0:24:56 > 0:24:59on another 20th-century development.
0:24:59 > 0:25:05Liszt innovation number five - "Serial Thriller".
0:25:11 > 0:25:16In his Faust Symphony of 1857, Liszt includes a melodic phrase that,
0:25:16 > 0:25:20while it might not sound all that revolutionary to our ears now,
0:25:20 > 0:25:24was to light a long fuse, and prefigure the complete
0:25:24 > 0:25:28dismantlement of the basic building blocks of Western music.
0:25:28 > 0:25:33The opening theme of 12 notes may not be an instantly hummable melody.
0:25:40 > 0:25:43But it does, as it happens, use up all 12 notes
0:25:43 > 0:25:47of the Western scale, without repeating any of them.
0:25:47 > 0:25:49So what? You may say.
0:25:49 > 0:25:54Well this is what, when the Austrian composer Arnold Schoenberg,
0:25:54 > 0:25:5868 years later, proposed a new way of organising music,
0:25:58 > 0:25:59whereby a melody could only use
0:25:59 > 0:26:02the 12 notes of the Western scale without repeating
0:26:02 > 0:26:07any of them, a method known as 12-tone serialism, it more or less
0:26:07 > 0:26:10brought about the collapse of musical civilisation as we know it.
0:26:10 > 0:26:11No kidding.
0:26:11 > 0:26:16But Liszt had been experimenting with it in this symphony over
0:26:16 > 0:26:20half a century earlier with no fuss or bother.
0:26:24 > 0:26:29Liszt had died by the time the only-12-notes-never-repeated idea
0:26:29 > 0:26:32really took hold.
0:26:32 > 0:26:35He might also have been appalled by the uses to which yet
0:26:35 > 0:26:38another of his list of innovations was eventually put,
0:26:38 > 0:26:41what used to be called "Musical Nationalism".
0:26:41 > 0:26:46Or, one might say the ethnic heritage phenomenon.
0:26:46 > 0:26:51Liszt innovation number six - "I can't get no self determination".
0:27:00 > 0:27:04In 1848, there were a series of revolutions all over Europe.
0:27:04 > 0:27:08Many of them were set in train by groups of people who shared
0:27:08 > 0:27:09a common language and culture,
0:27:09 > 0:27:13who wanted to gain independence from the various super powers that
0:27:13 > 0:27:18controlled them, most of all the Austrian Empire, ruled from Vienna.
0:27:39 > 0:27:44One of the 1848 uprisings took place in Liszt's native Hungary.
0:27:44 > 0:27:46The rebels were crushed.
0:27:47 > 0:27:53Liszt composed a set of what he called Hungarian Rhapsodies.
0:27:53 > 0:27:57They were certainly rhapsodic, but how genuinely Hungarian were they?
0:27:59 > 0:28:02Liszt, like every other composer of his time,
0:28:02 > 0:28:06was a trifle confused about what indigenous Hungarian music
0:28:06 > 0:28:09actually was, believing it to be the same as gypsy music,
0:28:09 > 0:28:13which in turn was often muddled up with Turkish music.
0:28:13 > 0:28:16We now know they were all wrong, that gypsy music was separate
0:28:16 > 0:28:18and different from Hungarian folk music,
0:28:18 > 0:28:22and that the music they all thought was gypsy music was in fact
0:28:22 > 0:28:26Hungarian folk music, played by gypsies in Budapest and other
0:28:26 > 0:28:30cities for the enjoyment of better off Hungarian and Austrian patrons.
0:28:30 > 0:28:33The gypsies kept their own music to themselves.
0:28:34 > 0:28:37MOURNFUL VIOLIN MUSIC
0:28:43 > 0:28:46It's important to make one thing absolutely clear.
0:28:46 > 0:28:50The ethnic heritage phenomenon may have been motivated by a deep
0:28:50 > 0:28:54and sincere love of country and of the traditions and roots of peoples
0:28:54 > 0:28:59who felt bossed about by other more powerful nations, no doubt about it.
0:28:59 > 0:29:02But what it was not was a bottom-up grass-roots movement,
0:29:02 > 0:29:05whereby peasant troubadours presented
0:29:05 > 0:29:08the treasures of their communities to the world.
0:29:10 > 0:29:14In all cases the movement sometimes called "nationalism in music"
0:29:14 > 0:29:18was concocted by highly trained, sophisticated, well travelled,
0:29:18 > 0:29:22middle-class composers who took bits and pieces of folk song
0:29:22 > 0:29:25and dance that they'd heard and tarted them up.
0:29:25 > 0:29:29The music that emerged was aimed at a mainstream audience who had
0:29:29 > 0:29:32no real interest in peasant culture whatsoever.
0:29:52 > 0:29:55Amongst the most popular collections of the type were
0:29:55 > 0:30:00Brahms's Hungarian Dances of 1869 and 1880, for example.
0:30:00 > 0:30:03They are great fun and a polished, accessible format,
0:30:03 > 0:30:06by a man from Hamburg. But let's be honest about it,
0:30:06 > 0:30:09if you played one of them to a passing Magyar milkmaid
0:30:09 > 0:30:14on the banks of the Danube River in 1870, and asked her what it was,
0:30:14 > 0:30:18she'd have likely answered, "Nice, some kind of fancy German music."
0:30:21 > 0:30:25The integration of pseudo peasant style into the piano
0:30:25 > 0:30:29and orchestral mainstream was an unstoppable flood.
0:30:29 > 0:30:30To be fair, though,
0:30:30 > 0:30:35the fashion yielded many of the best loved nuggets of 19th-century music.
0:31:12 > 0:31:15Nowhere were the moral questions surrounding the borrowing
0:31:15 > 0:31:19of elements from ethnic music and putting them into mainstream
0:31:19 > 0:31:23music more fiercely debated than in the United States of America.
0:31:27 > 0:31:30In the late 19th century, middle-class Americans were keen not
0:31:30 > 0:31:33to be outdone by their European counterparts,
0:31:33 > 0:31:36so they built concert halls, established orchestras
0:31:36 > 0:31:39and invited star names across the Atlantic to perform.
0:31:41 > 0:31:45One such high profile visitor was the Czech composer, Anton Dvorak.
0:31:46 > 0:31:50But when he was head-hunted, to run a music college in New York
0:31:50 > 0:31:55in 1892, at 20 times the salary he'd been getting doing the same
0:31:55 > 0:32:00thing in Prague, it had an odd effect on his musical compass.
0:32:05 > 0:32:09The most famous result of Dvorak's sojourn in the United States
0:32:09 > 0:32:12was his 9th Symphony, From The New World,
0:32:12 > 0:32:15with its now very familiar slow movement.
0:32:26 > 0:32:30It's an innocently memorable tune, rather like a hymn.
0:32:30 > 0:32:33Indeed it was later given holy words and turned into one,
0:32:33 > 0:32:38prompting some to assume, wrongly, that Dvorak had borrowed
0:32:38 > 0:32:41an actual African-American spiritual for his melody.
0:32:42 > 0:32:46But there were other tunes in the symphony that triggered
0:32:46 > 0:32:49a more heated debate on whose music belongs to whom.
0:32:49 > 0:32:51This is one of them.
0:33:26 > 0:33:29Though he denied it, Dvorak was repeatedly asked
0:33:29 > 0:33:33whether this tune was an actual native American folk tune.
0:33:33 > 0:33:35It certainly sounds like one.
0:33:35 > 0:33:38What's more, Dvorak urged his composition
0:33:38 > 0:33:43students in New York to go out and find a native American and African
0:33:43 > 0:33:46American folk songs to incorporate into their classical music.
0:33:48 > 0:33:49Why did it matter though,
0:33:49 > 0:33:52whether the tunes were borrowed or newly composed?
0:33:55 > 0:33:58It mattered because this was a period when the USA's official
0:33:58 > 0:34:04policy, called "Manifest Destiny", permitted the violent appropriation
0:34:04 > 0:34:07of the lands of native Americans for the benefit of white settlers.
0:34:10 > 0:34:13Consciously or not, adopting the music of non-whites
0:34:13 > 0:34:17who actually were oppressed was a risky strategy.
0:34:17 > 0:34:19It could have emphasised just how powerless,
0:34:19 > 0:34:23excluded and ripe for exploitation they were,
0:34:23 > 0:34:27which is why the symphony, as well as being the source of much musical
0:34:27 > 0:34:32enjoyment, has caused some soul searching as well over the years.
0:34:32 > 0:34:36The moral debate as to whether it's ethical for a richer people
0:34:36 > 0:34:39to adapt the music of a poorer people for their musical
0:34:39 > 0:34:43entertainment, often unaccredited and unpaid, has never gone away,
0:34:43 > 0:34:47and it's just as hotly debated in our own time.
0:34:47 > 0:34:51Not least in the fields of blues, jazz and world music.
0:34:55 > 0:34:59In 1895, Dvorak, desperately homesick, returned to
0:34:59 > 0:35:03his native Bohemia, the subject of the great body of his music, which -
0:35:03 > 0:35:08especially his Slavonic Dances - was a hymn to Czech nationalism.
0:35:20 > 0:35:23But any awkwardness we may feel about Dvorak
0:35:23 > 0:35:28and nationalism is a walk in the park compared to the hornets' nest
0:35:28 > 0:35:32provoked by Liszt's most needy and argumentative disciple of them all.
0:35:36 > 0:35:39Liszt innovation number seven - "Richard Wagner".
0:35:43 > 0:35:47The composer Liszt most influenced was his own future son-in-law,
0:35:47 > 0:35:52and self appointed saviour of all art himself, Richard Wagner.
0:35:55 > 0:35:59The colossus of Wagner is an inescapable reality of
0:35:59 > 0:36:04late 19th-century music, indeed, of recent western civilisation.
0:36:04 > 0:36:09That's because Wagner's style was so particular, his agenda so ambitious
0:36:09 > 0:36:14and his stature as a German national figure so all-embracing, that he
0:36:14 > 0:36:18was an act no normal mortal composer could hope to follow.
0:36:19 > 0:36:22Worshipped unlike any other composer in history,
0:36:22 > 0:36:26the claims for Wagner's status is the architect of modern theatre
0:36:26 > 0:36:31and the godfather of modern music have been, well, Wagnerian.
0:36:33 > 0:36:36But how well do those extravagant claims stand up to scrutiny,
0:36:36 > 0:36:40and how much in fact did he owe to Liszt?
0:36:40 > 0:36:43Wagner has been credited with innovations to music
0:36:43 > 0:36:46development he did not in fact innovate.
0:36:46 > 0:36:48Take harmony, for example.
0:36:48 > 0:36:52The cliche is that Wagner began dismantling the way harmony,
0:36:52 > 0:36:57the manipulation of chords, had been working happily for a few 100 years.
0:36:57 > 0:37:00One way he did this dismantling, was to take a chisel to
0:37:00 > 0:37:05the common triad, the basic building block of all western harmony.
0:37:05 > 0:37:10So he'd take a simple chord, like C minor, and squash it.
0:37:10 > 0:37:17Alternatively he'd take the simple chord of C Major, and stretch it.
0:37:17 > 0:37:21These techniques are known in the trade as diminishing
0:37:21 > 0:37:22and augmenting chords.
0:37:22 > 0:37:26Diminishing or augmenting chords does strange things to the way
0:37:26 > 0:37:28they behave, they become unstable,
0:37:28 > 0:37:32creating a sense of nervousness, or anxiety and uncertainty.
0:37:37 > 0:37:40Wagner uses them prolifically in his operas to evoke pain
0:37:40 > 0:37:44or anguish, or to tell you something grim is about to happen.
0:37:52 > 0:37:56In the first part of the Ring Cycle, for example, angry, diminished
0:37:56 > 0:38:01chords are often used to signify the dangerous power of the ring itself.
0:38:17 > 0:38:21Diminished and augmented chords, Wagner may have made his own,
0:38:21 > 0:38:24but they were first used in abundance by Liszt.
0:38:24 > 0:38:28His Faust Symphony of 1855, yes,
0:38:28 > 0:38:31he did one too, begins with an anguished opening theme
0:38:31 > 0:38:35entirely made of augmented chords, broken up into a tune.
0:38:55 > 0:38:58Very soon there is an outbreak of demonic pain,
0:38:58 > 0:39:01punched out in a series of diminished chords.
0:39:17 > 0:39:19While we're on the subject of chords,
0:39:19 > 0:39:23diminished and augmented, and Wagner's debt to Liszt,
0:39:23 > 0:39:26we need to tackle Wagner's most famous chord.
0:39:26 > 0:39:30So famous in fact that it has its own name, lengthy tomes have
0:39:30 > 0:39:33been written about it and academics have based whole PhDs on it.
0:39:33 > 0:39:36It is called the Tristan chord.
0:39:45 > 0:39:49The Tristan chord comes from Wagner's opera, Tristan and Isolde,
0:39:49 > 0:39:52and whilst it has been accorded the kind of mystique and reverence
0:39:52 > 0:39:57usually reserved for the Holy Grail, or Einstein's special theory
0:39:57 > 0:40:01of relativity, it is, when all is said and done, wait for it,
0:40:01 > 0:40:03a diminished chord.
0:40:07 > 0:40:10Wagner's debt to Liszt is so great that it's fair to make
0:40:10 > 0:40:14the perhaps shocking statement that there is no innovation,
0:40:14 > 0:40:18no technique, no supposed great leap forward, in expression or style.
0:40:18 > 0:40:22anywhere in Wagner's monumental output that is not found
0:40:22 > 0:40:25somewhere first in Liszt.
0:40:25 > 0:40:27But, and this is a big but,
0:40:27 > 0:40:31notwithstanding Wagner's frequent borrowings from Liszt,
0:40:31 > 0:40:34it will be churlish not to stress that the greatest composers
0:40:34 > 0:40:38have always tended to synthesize the styles and currents of their
0:40:38 > 0:40:43time, and Wagner's music in any case has far better tunes than Liszt's.
0:41:15 > 0:41:18Tristan and Isolde is an out and out masterpiece,
0:41:18 > 0:41:22with sweeping yearning themes, deserving of its place
0:41:22 > 0:41:28in music's pantheon, whatever it may or may not have innovated.
0:41:28 > 0:41:32Like Verdi's La Traviata, 12 years earlier, it's about a doomed
0:41:32 > 0:41:35love affair - death and destiny, of course.
0:41:39 > 0:41:44There is however one very important difference between Verdi and Wagner.
0:41:44 > 0:41:49Wagner chose quite deliberately to restructure opera in direct
0:41:49 > 0:41:52defiance of the established tradition, as developed
0:41:52 > 0:41:55over 200 years, mostly by Italians.
0:41:56 > 0:41:59The Italian way was to divide up the opera
0:41:59 > 0:42:02into clearly defined songs, called arias,
0:42:02 > 0:42:07narrative prose-like singing that carried the plot, called arioso,
0:42:07 > 0:42:13duets, trios and sweeping choruses with a bit of ballet thrown in.
0:42:13 > 0:42:16Italian opera was therefore like a variety show.
0:42:16 > 0:42:20Wagner threw this out and replaced it with a continuous musical flow,
0:42:20 > 0:42:26with all those elements mixed in together into one seamless whole.
0:42:26 > 0:42:29He decided that his best source material wouldn't be other
0:42:29 > 0:42:33operas, but the powerful symphonic tradition of the concert hall,
0:42:33 > 0:42:37that was dominated by Germans, especially Beethoven,
0:42:37 > 0:42:41and wannabe Germans, like Berlioz and Liszt.
0:42:41 > 0:42:46What's more, Wagner's main subjects were thoroughly German too.
0:42:46 > 0:42:50His operas are made up of stories from history and myth,
0:42:50 > 0:42:53which put archetypal Germanic heroes to the test,
0:42:53 > 0:42:58like Tannhauser, Lohengrin and the Mastersingers.
0:42:58 > 0:43:01Or they concern themselves with sacrifice and denial, like
0:43:01 > 0:43:06Tristan and Isolde and Parsifal, or they confront the inevitability
0:43:06 > 0:43:10of the corruption of power, or all of the above at once,
0:43:10 > 0:43:15as is the case in Wagner's monumental four opera cycle,
0:43:15 > 0:43:16The Ring Of The Nibelung.
0:43:18 > 0:43:23It took Wagner 26 years to create his epic Ring Cycle.
0:43:23 > 0:43:26To stage it, Wagner had his own theatre erected,
0:43:26 > 0:43:31designed to his own specifications at Bayreuth in Bavaria.
0:43:31 > 0:43:33For its first complete performance,
0:43:33 > 0:43:37he decreed that the house lights should be dimmed.
0:43:37 > 0:43:41This was such a novelty at the time it drew gasps from the audience.
0:43:41 > 0:43:45He also hid the orchestra under the stage,
0:43:45 > 0:43:50and instigated theatrical effects never before attempted.
0:43:50 > 0:43:55Wagner's ambition was nothing less than the creation of the
0:43:55 > 0:43:59art form of the future, in which all the arts would combine and fuse,
0:43:59 > 0:44:02led by the unequally greater power of music.
0:44:04 > 0:44:07In order to do so, he needed a tool kit of components
0:44:07 > 0:44:09and systems at his command.
0:44:10 > 0:44:14One such technique is his use of fragments of melody,
0:44:14 > 0:44:17or rhythm, or harmony as calling cards of a character,
0:44:17 > 0:44:21a place an idea or a thing. These fragments, or cells,
0:44:21 > 0:44:24from which he created the whole web of the music,
0:44:24 > 0:44:26are called "leitmotifs".
0:44:26 > 0:44:28Whatever Wagner-worshipers tell you,
0:44:28 > 0:44:32Wagner didn't invent the leitmotif idea, the credit for that lies
0:44:32 > 0:44:35squarely with the opera composer and distinguished writer
0:44:35 > 0:44:40ETA Hoffman, 60-odd years earlier. Just thought you should know.
0:44:40 > 0:44:44Wagner perfected the leitmotif technique in all his mature operas,
0:44:44 > 0:44:46particularly his Ring Cycle.
0:44:46 > 0:44:51But in his final opera, Parsifal of 1882, he went one stage further,
0:44:51 > 0:44:55giving his leitmotifs what he hoped would be sacred power.
0:44:56 > 0:44:59Amongst Parsifal's 20 or so principal leitmotifs,
0:44:59 > 0:45:02for example, there's one for the Holy Grail itself,
0:45:02 > 0:45:05one of the key ingredients in the legend on which
0:45:05 > 0:45:09the plot is based, which sounds like an Amen in sacred music.
0:45:20 > 0:45:23And there's one for the concept of suffering.
0:45:33 > 0:45:36Parsifal himself has one, the hero of the story,
0:45:36 > 0:45:39an innocent fool who is redeemed by pity.
0:45:39 > 0:45:41His motif is usually played
0:45:41 > 0:45:44by the heroic trombones and horns, naturally.
0:45:49 > 0:45:52Once you start combining, modifying and transforming these tiny
0:45:52 > 0:45:56cells of melody or harmony, though, the possibilities are virtually
0:45:56 > 0:46:01endless, which is how Wagner derives such a richness from the technique.
0:46:01 > 0:46:05IN GERMAN:
0:47:18 > 0:47:22The second musical hallmark Wagner puts to work in Parsifal
0:47:22 > 0:47:26is a technique called "chromaticism".
0:47:26 > 0:47:28It comes from the Greek word meaning "colour"
0:47:28 > 0:47:30and is the musical equivalent
0:47:30 > 0:47:34of filling a canvas with thousands of colours instead of just a few.
0:47:36 > 0:47:39In the music of Mozart or Beethoven, say, there was
0:47:39 > 0:47:43a hierarchy of chords, a bit like the pieces in a game of chess.
0:47:43 > 0:47:47The king chord was the chord of the key the piece was written in,
0:47:47 > 0:47:51C Major for example, then there were queen, bishop, knight
0:47:51 > 0:47:55and castle chords, all more important than the humble pawns.
0:47:56 > 0:48:00What chromaticism did was to weaken these hierarchical
0:48:00 > 0:48:05relationships, eventually making all chords as powerful as the others.
0:48:06 > 0:48:10This did away with the sense of "coming home" in a piece of music.
0:48:10 > 0:48:13It was a deliberate attempt to make harmonies unfamiliar,
0:48:13 > 0:48:16unstable, and more exotic in flavour.
0:48:18 > 0:48:22In the opening prelude of Parsifal's third act, the music shifts
0:48:22 > 0:48:26and slides around, deliberately avoiding settling on one key
0:48:26 > 0:48:30or chord. This is extreme chromaticism at work, you're
0:48:30 > 0:48:35meant to feel disorientated and in the grip of mysterious powers.
0:48:35 > 0:48:39The harmony's in meltdown because Wagner has used chromaticism
0:48:39 > 0:48:42to put you in an un-homely and unsettling place.
0:48:58 > 0:49:01As for the plot, well Parsifal doesn't have one,
0:49:01 > 0:49:05so much as a series of ritualistic scenes.
0:49:05 > 0:49:09Set in Medieval Spain, it's a quasi-religious happening,
0:49:09 > 0:49:12set against a parable about the Holy Grail,
0:49:12 > 0:49:17guarded by the Knights Templar in their secret castle, Montsalvat.
0:49:19 > 0:49:24The work is complete with symbols, magic, and time travel,
0:49:24 > 0:49:26but there's a deadly serious idea,
0:49:26 > 0:49:29that personal redemption is achieved by
0:49:29 > 0:49:34resisting temptation and seeking an understanding of fellow suffering.
0:49:34 > 0:49:37Compassion has a healing and liberating power.
0:49:39 > 0:49:42There's nothing mad or fanciful about this idea,
0:49:42 > 0:49:44and the first and third acts of Parsifal,
0:49:44 > 0:49:47the acts that take place in the Grail's mountain
0:49:47 > 0:49:51refuge of Montsalvat, contain music of breathtaking grandeur
0:49:51 > 0:49:55and beauty, to match the aspiration of the beliefs underpinning it.
0:50:02 > 0:50:05IN GERMAN:
0:50:41 > 0:50:44Parsifal is the work of a mountainous talent,
0:50:44 > 0:50:47seeing to give meaning to the world around him,
0:50:47 > 0:50:51to guide humanity towards his vision of enlightenment.
0:50:52 > 0:50:55There's another side to the philosophy behind Parsifal, though,
0:50:55 > 0:50:59a side that for some Wagner-worshipers flipped a switch.
0:50:59 > 0:51:02It's not possible to side step the fact that the climax of this
0:51:02 > 0:51:06crusader story focuses on the magical properties of the spear
0:51:06 > 0:51:11that allegedly pierced the side of the crucified Jesus of Nazareth.
0:51:11 > 0:51:14The pure blood of Christ, the Holy Grail containing it,
0:51:14 > 0:51:17and the sacrificial significance of Good Friday
0:51:17 > 0:51:22are all presented as both real, and miraculous.
0:51:22 > 0:51:26The holy blood itself is seen as purifying, purging the evil,
0:51:26 > 0:51:28the weak and the sinful.
0:51:32 > 0:51:36Plotting against the innocent Christian Parcifal
0:51:36 > 0:51:40is the Darth Vader of the tale, a malicious sorcerer called Klingsor.
0:51:42 > 0:51:45Until the 1950s portrayed in Bayreuth
0:51:45 > 0:51:48productions as of Arabic or Jewish origin.
0:51:50 > 0:51:52IN GERMAN:
0:52:11 > 0:52:14He's accompanied by a possessed shape-shifter, Kundry,
0:52:14 > 0:52:19a reincarnation of the cursed Jewish princess, Herodias.
0:52:24 > 0:52:28Klingsor forces Kundry to seduce Parsifal in the hope
0:52:28 > 0:52:30of contaminating his purity.
0:52:35 > 0:52:38Kundry even enlists the help of her teenage
0:52:38 > 0:52:40daughters in the task of seducing him.
0:52:40 > 0:52:43It's not exactly a family show, Parsifal(!)
0:52:43 > 0:52:48The much abused slave-whore Kundry, having converted to Christianity at
0:52:48 > 0:52:51the last moment, and been released from the curse that's trapped
0:52:51 > 0:52:57her in time, is duly killed off at the moment the pure Parsifal becomes
0:52:57 > 0:53:02chief protector of the Grail, blessed by a dove from heaven.
0:53:03 > 0:53:07Kundry's final humiliation, and the triumph of the Aryan hero,
0:53:07 > 0:53:11Parsifal, were not very subtly concealed metaphors for what
0:53:11 > 0:53:14Wagner wanted to happen to German culture.
0:53:16 > 0:53:19Politically, his agenda was to give the Germans
0:53:19 > 0:53:22a sense of their historical destiny.
0:53:22 > 0:53:25And to fulfil that destiny, as he conceived it,
0:53:25 > 0:53:29he firmly believed that it would be necessary to remove all Jews
0:53:29 > 0:53:33and all traces of Jewish culture from the German Reich.
0:53:35 > 0:53:38Unfortunately, in the newly unified Germany
0:53:38 > 0:53:41of the late 19th century, anti-Semitism was rampant,
0:53:41 > 0:53:45but Wagner's views were excessive even by the standards of the time.
0:53:48 > 0:53:50Within just 40 years, the anti-Semitism
0:53:50 > 0:53:53and ultra-German nationalism of the 1880s had
0:53:53 > 0:53:56evolved into the cancerous ideology of Nazism.
0:53:57 > 0:54:01It's no good pretending Wagner wasn't accessory to this
0:54:01 > 0:54:03slide into xenophobic vitriol.
0:54:04 > 0:54:08In one of his many anti-Semitic publications Wagner said all
0:54:08 > 0:54:12contact with Jews was insufferable to any true German,
0:54:12 > 0:54:16and that only their annihilation would solve the Jewish question.
0:54:20 > 0:54:23The Nazi top brass treated Wagner's opera house
0:54:23 > 0:54:28at Bayreuth as a holy shrine, a place of pilgrimage and reverence.
0:54:30 > 0:54:33They were welcomed with open arms by Wagner's
0:54:33 > 0:54:37surviving family members and the Bayreuth elite.
0:54:37 > 0:54:40The gleaming hostess here is Winifred Wagner,
0:54:40 > 0:54:43an English woman who was Wagner's daughter-in-law.
0:54:45 > 0:54:49Bayreuth, in fact, had become Montsalvat itself, the mountain-top
0:54:49 > 0:54:54resting place of the Holy Grail, the high temple of Aryan culture.
0:55:05 > 0:55:09Knowing how the message of Parsifal became distorted by Nazism,
0:55:09 > 0:55:12it's uncomfortable for us to hear of Wagner's
0:55:12 > 0:55:15sublime music without wincing.
0:55:15 > 0:55:18In one way, this became the most dangerous music ever written,
0:55:18 > 0:55:23because despite being motivated by a devotion to compassion,
0:55:23 > 0:55:25it inspired hatred.
0:55:25 > 0:55:29Parsifal was put on 23 times in Berlin alone
0:55:29 > 0:55:32during the period of the Third Reich.
0:55:35 > 0:55:38It's not so far-fetched to suggest that without his link to
0:55:38 > 0:55:42the Nazis, most people who are not hardcore opera lovers
0:55:42 > 0:55:44would by now have lost interest in Wagner.
0:55:44 > 0:55:48That may sound harsh, but the musical evidence of Wagner's impact
0:55:48 > 0:55:53is nothing like as convincing as his disciples would have us believe.
0:55:53 > 0:55:56Everywhere you look in the 1880s, outside Bayreuth,
0:55:56 > 0:56:00you see composers carrying on as if nothing has happened.
0:56:01 > 0:56:05I'm not just talking about Brahms, in Vienna, ploughing on with
0:56:05 > 0:56:09his symphonies undeterred, but about Offenbach in Paris,
0:56:09 > 0:56:13with his knockabout satire and frilly knickers, Johann Strauss the
0:56:13 > 0:56:19Younger in waltz-mad Vienna, Bizet's sensuous Carmen, with its catchy
0:56:19 > 0:56:23tunes, or Gilbert and Sullivan's witty and effervescent operettas.
0:56:23 > 0:56:26These were broad, unthreatening entertainments, that anyone,
0:56:26 > 0:56:29with the price of a ticket could enjoy.
0:56:30 > 0:56:33Which is precisely why dedicated followers of Wagner,
0:56:33 > 0:56:37looked down their noses at such flotsam and jetsam.
0:56:39 > 0:56:44Mass audiences weren't deterred by the snobbery directed at them,
0:56:44 > 0:56:46they never are, but what became misleadingly
0:56:46 > 0:56:50labelled as serious classical music started to believe it was
0:56:50 > 0:56:56in some other realm, untainted by all that light, frothy musical fun.
0:56:56 > 0:56:58Wagner's acolytes were happy to
0:56:58 > 0:57:02retreat into their increasingly exclusive, and lofty club, where
0:57:02 > 0:57:07only the initiated, the learned, and the bold would venture to tread.
0:57:07 > 0:57:10Their attitude would eventually lead the composer, Arnold Schoenberg
0:57:10 > 0:57:15to declare, in 1946, those who compose because they want to
0:57:15 > 0:57:20please others, and have audiences in mind, are not real artists.
0:57:21 > 0:57:24This disastrous schism between
0:57:24 > 0:57:28high and low art had its seeds in Wagner's supreme arrogance,
0:57:28 > 0:57:31like that of a high priest swallowing up all
0:57:31 > 0:57:37the arts into his musical blueprint for the destiny of human kind.
0:57:37 > 0:57:39It was understandable that Wagner might want to
0:57:39 > 0:57:43speculate about the artwork of the future, one that would encompass
0:57:43 > 0:57:47with it all the arts, centred on human dramas of love, death
0:57:47 > 0:57:52and destiny, but it wasn't to be his vision that fulfilled the promise.
0:57:52 > 0:57:56Motion pictures were the artwork of the future, a technological
0:57:56 > 0:57:59breakthrough that stuttered into life just after his death.
0:58:04 > 0:58:07Wagner's main contribution to the music that followed him
0:58:07 > 0:58:10was that all the key composers of the next 30 years,
0:58:10 > 0:58:15particularly outside Germany, were inspired not to emulate him,
0:58:15 > 0:58:19but to somehow find an alternative and completely repudiate him.
0:58:23 > 0:58:26In the next programme - an age of revolution more radical
0:58:26 > 0:58:29and savage than anything Wagner could have imagined
0:58:29 > 0:58:32was about to tear music apart.
0:58:32 > 0:58:36Rebellion and subversion, political and musical, was in the air.
0:58:38 > 0:58:44MUSIC: "Procession of the Sage - The Sage" by Igor Stravinsky
0:59:02 > 0:59:06Subtitles by Red Bee Media Ltd