0:00:04 > 0:00:07A remarkable chapter in space flight ended
0:00:08 > 0:00:11when the Space Shuttle launched for the final time.
0:00:13 > 0:00:20Since the early 1980s, the Shuttle has been the pinnacle of manned spaceflight technology.
0:00:20 > 0:00:24Columbia is a beautiful ship. She's performing magnificently.
0:00:24 > 0:00:29Horizon and the BBC have covered every step of its story.
0:00:30 > 0:00:37A mission of 37 orbits going east from the Cape out over the Atlantic...
0:00:37 > 0:00:40Over the last 30 years
0:00:40 > 0:00:44the Shuttle has contributed to some dazzling scientific achievements.
0:00:47 > 0:00:48Hey!
0:00:48 > 0:00:50Oh!
0:00:50 > 0:00:51Wow!
0:00:51 > 0:00:56But the successes have been overshadowed by tragedy.
0:00:56 > 0:01:02He said, "I don't see her. I don't see the Shuttle." I said, "It's gone." And it was.
0:01:02 > 0:01:05You just knew it was... You knew.
0:01:06 > 0:01:11Now that it's all over, how will the Space Shuttle be remembered?
0:01:11 > 0:01:16As a great adventure in human space exploration?
0:01:17 > 0:01:21Or as a fatally-flawed white elephant?
0:01:37 > 0:01:43In the early days of the Shuttle programme, each launch was a thrilling event for America
0:01:43 > 0:01:46and for the astronauts involved.
0:01:47 > 0:01:51There's a period of time up on the launch pad where you're standing
0:01:51 > 0:01:56with all the searchlights playing up on the Shuttle.
0:01:56 > 0:02:00And here is this monster that you're about to climb into.
0:02:00 > 0:02:08Because it's fully-fuelled and there's a certain amount of boil off of the liquid oxygen and so forth,
0:02:08 > 0:02:13it seems like it's a hissing, breathing, alive machine.
0:02:13 > 0:02:16The voice communications become
0:02:16 > 0:02:19quite silent in the last minutes. You hear the counting down
0:02:19 > 0:02:22and the main engines come on.
0:02:26 > 0:02:29Of course, that's about, I guess,
0:02:29 > 0:02:311.25 million pounds of thrust.
0:02:33 > 0:02:37You get that kick in the pants and you're up, up and away.
0:02:45 > 0:02:51We're going something over about 100mph by the time we reach the top of the tower.
0:02:53 > 0:02:59You're just sitting there hoping like heck that nothing happens to any of the engines
0:02:59 > 0:03:03because your mind's thinking all the time. "What do I look for?
0:03:03 > 0:03:06"What do I need to be ready to do?"
0:03:09 > 0:03:13This strange, loud, roaring staccato is somehow punctuated
0:03:13 > 0:03:16by another sound of an explosion.
0:03:18 > 0:03:21That's the solid rockets being released.
0:03:21 > 0:03:25It looks like you're flying through a fireball when those things go off.
0:03:28 > 0:03:31After that point, it's very smooth.
0:03:34 > 0:03:39The whole experience is just a tremendous adventure.
0:03:39 > 0:03:43I smiled from ear to ear right when the engines went off
0:03:43 > 0:03:47and said, "What an experience! Let's go back and do that again!"
0:03:47 > 0:03:50MUSIC: "Hail To The Chief"
0:03:54 > 0:03:58Americans were deeply proud of their new space programme.
0:04:00 > 0:04:02CHEERING
0:04:02 > 0:04:07The Shuttle was a symbol of the very best of American ingenuity.
0:04:12 > 0:04:16'Ladies and gentlemen, the President of the United States and Mrs Reagan
0:04:16 > 0:04:21'and astronauts Mattingly and Hartsfield.'
0:04:23 > 0:04:28The fourth landing of the Columbia marks our entrance into a new era.
0:04:28 > 0:04:32The test flights are over. The groundwork has been laid.
0:04:32 > 0:04:39Beginning with the next flight, the Columbia and her sister ships will be fully operational.
0:04:42 > 0:04:47The excitement echoed the celebration of the Apollo programme decades before
0:04:47 > 0:04:51where the story of the Shuttle begins.
0:04:51 > 0:04:55'We're go for landing. Eagle, you're go for landing. Over.'
0:04:55 > 0:04:59'Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed.'
0:04:59 > 0:05:04The American space agency, NASA, had achieved a remarkable triumph
0:05:04 > 0:05:07in getting men to the Moon and back.
0:05:10 > 0:05:17But even as the ticker tape fell, NASA was in trouble. The Moon shot had cost 25 billion.
0:05:17 > 0:05:23It didn't take long for the public and politicians to question the price tag of future space travel.
0:05:25 > 0:05:28The space programme needed to be cheaper.
0:05:32 > 0:05:37Many at NASA had long dreamed of building a reusable craft,
0:05:37 > 0:05:40a sleek, futuristic space plane,
0:05:40 > 0:05:44which would launch into orbit off the back of a vast winged booster.
0:05:45 > 0:05:50Both vehicles would be able to land on a standard runway.
0:05:51 > 0:05:55Though reusable, this design was still too costly.
0:05:58 > 0:06:04So in 1970, NASA was obliged to seek support from the Air Force,
0:06:04 > 0:06:09which had already experimented with rocket planes that could skim the edge of space.
0:06:13 > 0:06:16The Air Force agreed to collaborate,
0:06:16 > 0:06:22but only if NASA made the space plane big enough to carry hefty spy satellites.
0:06:30 > 0:06:33The Shuttle as we know it was born,
0:06:34 > 0:06:38the main vehicle an enormous delta-winged orbiter,
0:06:40 > 0:06:45its vast body covered in a patchwork of heat-resistant tiles
0:06:45 > 0:06:49which allow it to withstand the intense heat of re-entry.
0:06:52 > 0:06:55Too big to launch off the back of a booster plane,
0:06:55 > 0:06:59the orbiter is instead mated with a central fuel tank
0:06:59 > 0:07:05flanked by two solid rockets which provide the thrust to take it into orbit.
0:07:07 > 0:07:11By 1972, the Shuttle's distinctive design was set,
0:07:11 > 0:07:14though not everyone approved.
0:07:15 > 0:07:19We have a vehicle which rests on a huge tank
0:07:19 > 0:07:22which has 750,000 gallons of fuel.
0:07:22 > 0:07:29And then there are these two great solid rocket boosters, 150 feet long, strapped on either side of it.
0:07:29 > 0:07:31And the orbiter sits on top.
0:07:31 > 0:07:37That's the equivalent of riding a broomstick made of dynamite with two firecrackers on either side.
0:07:42 > 0:07:48Despite the misgivings of some, Space Shuttle Columbia was finally ready to go on April 12th, 1981.
0:07:48 > 0:07:5420 years to the day after Russia's Yuri Gagarin first orbited the Earth.
0:08:00 > 0:08:04From the start, NASA planned to make Shuttle flights routine
0:08:04 > 0:08:07with launches every two weeks.
0:08:10 > 0:08:16To help fund this ambitious schedule, crews would work with commercial satellites.
0:08:16 > 0:08:21New ones would be deployed and old ones fixed when they broke.
0:08:24 > 0:08:29In April, 1984, the Shuttle faced its first major challenge
0:08:29 > 0:08:33to show that it was worth the billions it had cost.
0:08:33 > 0:08:39Its mission was to repair the faulty electronics in a satellite called Solar Max.
0:08:44 > 0:08:49But first, astronaut George "Pinky" Nelson had to catch it.
0:08:49 > 0:08:53'Nelson on his way. One hour and two minutes.
0:08:59 > 0:09:04'You'll have to hold on to it with both hands, I imagine.'
0:09:04 > 0:09:10Unable to dock properly with Solar Max, Nelson tried to stop the satellite spinning...with his hands.
0:09:10 > 0:09:14'If you could go in that hole, that would be fine.'
0:09:14 > 0:09:19Nelson's efforts only made Solar Max tumble faster. It seemed a failure.
0:09:19 > 0:09:23Happily, though, controllers managed to slow the spinning satellite
0:09:23 > 0:09:29enough for the Shuttle to manoeuvre alongside and attempt to grab Solar Max with its robot arm.
0:09:29 > 0:09:34- 'OK, we've got it' - Roger, copy that.
0:09:34 > 0:09:37Outstanding!
0:09:37 > 0:09:39'Roger. It's all downhill from here.'
0:09:44 > 0:09:50With each passing mission, the astronauts were learning how to enjoy life in space.
0:09:53 > 0:09:58We are given the opportunity to carry some music onboard,
0:09:58 > 0:10:03tapes to play in a pocket stereo player.
0:10:03 > 0:10:06There's a song called the Southern Cross
0:10:06 > 0:10:09by Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young.
0:10:09 > 0:10:14I remember at one point looking out the window at the Southern Cross and playing that.
0:10:14 > 0:10:19# When you see the Southern Cross for the first time
0:10:21 > 0:10:26# You understand now why you came this way... #
0:10:26 > 0:10:32You could spend days just looking out the window and taking it all in, learning what continents look like.
0:10:32 > 0:10:38# But it's as big as the promise The promise of the coming day... #
0:10:39 > 0:10:46I used to have little dreams when I was a kid that I'd run down the street and fly into the air.
0:10:46 > 0:10:48That's what weightlessness is like.
0:10:48 > 0:10:55We've bee having a lot of fun up here and, of course, doing a lot of good work for the space programme.
0:10:55 > 0:10:59The first day or so, when you're adjusting to it,
0:10:59 > 0:11:04you flail around a lot, reach for a switch and hit the ceiling.
0:11:04 > 0:11:09Zero G in itself causes you to find games.
0:11:31 > 0:11:37I would be up on a flight deck, working like a good pilot, and I'd hear the guys laughing and roaring.
0:11:37 > 0:11:44When I finally went down, there they were doing this precision drill team stuff. It was fantastic.
0:11:58 > 0:12:02'We were constantly asking the question, "Where's Joe?"
0:12:02 > 0:12:06'And lo and behold, what should we find...
0:12:06 > 0:12:09'but...but look at that.
0:12:09 > 0:12:13'We have discovered either an alien space creature
0:12:13 > 0:12:16'or... it is! It is Dr Allan!
0:12:18 > 0:12:21'Largest personality, but diminutive in stature,
0:12:21 > 0:12:26'he's managed to insert himself in yet another crevice.'
0:12:26 > 0:12:30# Somebody fine will come along Make me forget about loving you
0:12:31 > 0:12:34# At the Southern Cross. #
0:12:40 > 0:12:45By August, 1984, NASA was so confident that the Shuttle was now a routine space bus
0:12:45 > 0:12:52that it launched a new publicity campaign - a competition to put a teacher in space.
0:12:53 > 0:12:55The BBC followed the story.
0:12:57 > 0:13:03Around the country, teachers started filling in the 48-page application form.
0:13:03 > 0:13:09Among them was a social science teacher from Concord, New Hampshire, called Christa McAuliffe.
0:13:09 > 0:13:14Christa called us one evening when she was at home in Concord
0:13:14 > 0:13:20and she said, "I'm applying for this teacher in space programme." And we thought it was great.
0:13:20 > 0:13:25In the first place, we really didn't really think she'd probably get a chance.
0:13:25 > 0:13:29But it was a fun process to even apply
0:13:29 > 0:13:32and to get involved in any way.
0:13:32 > 0:13:38And so then, of course, the nearer she got to it, the more excited we all became.
0:13:41 > 0:13:48In all, 11,000 teachers applied, but by mid-July there were 10 left in the contest.
0:13:48 > 0:13:52And the winner, the teacher who will be going into space,
0:13:52 > 0:13:56Christa McAuliffe. Where is...? Is that you?
0:13:58 > 0:14:02Christa was the first choice of all seven judges.
0:14:02 > 0:14:07She was described as a great communicator and composed under pressure.
0:14:07 > 0:14:10For NASA, it was a public relations coup.
0:14:10 > 0:14:18Overnight, Christa became a national celebrity, the most famous astronaut since Neil Armstrong.
0:14:20 > 0:14:26You kids out there, do the best you can and get the best education you can. That's what it's all about.
0:14:26 > 0:14:31So when I'm up in that Shuttle, I want everyone working real hard
0:14:31 > 0:14:35to make education what it should be in this country! Thank you!
0:14:37 > 0:14:43Christa went to Florida to train with the Shuttle crew and immerse herself in the life of an astronaut.
0:14:48 > 0:14:51On January 28th, 1986,
0:14:51 > 0:14:55Christa and the crew prepared for launch.
0:14:57 > 0:15:02Amongst the crowds waiting for lift-off were her parents.
0:15:16 > 0:15:22'Velocity 2,257 feet per second, altitude 4.3 nautical miles, down range distance 3 nautical miles.'
0:15:25 > 0:15:30All seemed normal until 73 seconds into the launch.
0:15:30 > 0:15:34- 'Challenger, go with throttle up.' - Roger, throttle up.
0:15:37 > 0:15:44'One minute 15 seconds, velocity 2,900 feet per second, altitude 9 nautical miles...
0:15:46 > 0:15:50'Flight Controller is here looking very carefully at the situation.'
0:15:54 > 0:16:00He said, "I don't see her. I don't see the Shuttle." I said, "It's gone." And it was.
0:16:00 > 0:16:04You just knew that it was... No, you knew it was...
0:16:04 > 0:16:07You knew.
0:16:07 > 0:16:10'Obviously, a major malfunction.'
0:16:10 > 0:16:14I guess it must have been a minute before I realised
0:16:14 > 0:16:19that the crew was either dead or in the process of dying.
0:16:19 > 0:16:21I wanted to cry.
0:16:21 > 0:16:25And everybody around me. We couldn't look at each other.
0:16:29 > 0:16:33I just sat in stunned silence for the longest period of time.
0:16:33 > 0:16:37Basically, faced the wall, sat in my chair
0:16:37 > 0:16:39and tried to hold back my emotions.
0:16:42 > 0:16:45- Go ahead. - 'Vehicle exploded.'
0:16:48 > 0:16:50Copy.
0:17:04 > 0:17:09We're awaiting word from any recovery forces in the down range field.
0:17:09 > 0:17:16As a team of experts began to look for the cause of the accident, a disturbing story unfolded.
0:17:18 > 0:17:24A full year before the launch, a design fault had been discovered in the solid rocket boosters.
0:17:28 > 0:17:32These are the powerful rockets strapped to the fuel tank
0:17:32 > 0:17:36which provide extra thrust during lift-off.
0:17:39 > 0:17:43The rockets are built for NASA by a company called Morton Thiokol,
0:17:43 > 0:17:48based in Utah, over 2,000 miles away from Cape Canaveral.
0:17:50 > 0:17:54This distance led to a crucial design problem.
0:17:55 > 0:17:58Rather than have the rocket engines
0:17:58 > 0:18:03built near the Cape, which would have been the best way, and barged in,
0:18:03 > 0:18:06they were built in...
0:18:06 > 0:18:10out in the prairies and then they had to be freighted all the way.
0:18:10 > 0:18:14That meant being built in segments, which meant you had the joints.
0:18:14 > 0:18:17With joints you may have problems.
0:18:20 > 0:18:24Each joint was sealed using a rubber O ring
0:18:24 > 0:18:30which expanded during launch to plug the joint and seal in super-heated gas.
0:18:32 > 0:18:36Failure would mean that hot gas would burst out like a blowtorch.
0:18:39 > 0:18:44So, for safety, the designers built in a secondary O ring.
0:18:47 > 0:18:53Two minutes into every launch, the solid rockets detach, fall back to Earth
0:18:53 > 0:18:56and are collected for re-use.
0:18:57 > 0:19:04In January, 1985, one of Morton Thiokol's engineers made a routine examination of a booster
0:19:04 > 0:19:09that had been retrieved from the previous Shuttle launch.
0:19:09 > 0:19:11What he found shocked him.
0:19:12 > 0:19:15When those boosters were separated
0:19:15 > 0:19:21and I inspected all six joints, two joints had been badly compromised.
0:19:22 > 0:19:28On that January flight, the primary O rings in the compromised joints had failed.
0:19:28 > 0:19:34Only the presence of the secondary O rings had prevented a catastrophic explosion.
0:19:36 > 0:19:40When I saw that in real time in January of 1985,
0:19:40 > 0:19:47I almost had cardiac arrest. I could not believe that we hadn't blown it up at that point in time.
0:19:49 > 0:19:53The January launch had been the coldest ever.
0:19:53 > 0:19:59Boisjoly concluded that the O rings had failed because the cold temperatures had made them brittle.
0:19:59 > 0:20:04He reported back to his managers and NASA was informed.
0:20:04 > 0:20:10NASA ordered a full review of the joints, but decided the O ring system was safe enough
0:20:10 > 0:20:13to keep the Shuttle flying.
0:20:20 > 0:20:25A year later, as Challenger waited on the launch pad,
0:20:25 > 0:20:29conditions were even colder than they had been the previous January.
0:20:33 > 0:20:38NASA consulted with engineers at Morton Thiokol
0:20:38 > 0:20:42who were reluctant to give the go ahead for launch
0:20:42 > 0:20:44in such cold temperatures.
0:20:45 > 0:20:51But NASA was impatient. Its recent launches had been dogged by last-minute delays.
0:20:51 > 0:20:55This launch was already four days behind schedule.
0:20:59 > 0:21:04In a last-minute tele-conference, under pressure from NASA,
0:21:04 > 0:21:08Morton Thiokol withdrew its opposition to the launch.
0:21:11 > 0:21:13But it WAS too cold
0:21:13 > 0:21:18and in one of the joints both O rings failed.
0:21:24 > 0:21:28The vehicle broke up into hundreds of fragments.
0:21:31 > 0:21:35The crew compartment plummeted towards the ocean,
0:21:35 > 0:21:39but at seven miles up, it took nearly 2.5 minutes to descend.
0:21:39 > 0:21:45Later, NASA calculated that some of the crew might have been conscious on descent
0:21:45 > 0:21:47and that all were probably alive.
0:21:52 > 0:21:58The seven astronauts perished when the stricken craft hit the sea at more than 200 miles an hour.
0:22:02 > 0:22:08The destruction of Challenger and its brave crew greatly affected America.
0:22:08 > 0:22:14The media appetite for Christa McAuliffe meant the nation knew this Shuttle crew like no other.
0:22:17 > 0:22:19Commander Dick Scobee.
0:22:19 > 0:22:21Pilot Mike Smith.
0:22:22 > 0:22:25Dr Judith Resnik.
0:22:26 > 0:22:28Dr Ron McNair.
0:22:28 > 0:22:31Lieutenant Colonel Ellison Onizuka.
0:22:31 > 0:22:33Captain Greg Jarvis.
0:22:33 > 0:22:36And teacher Christa McAuliffe.
0:22:53 > 0:22:56The tragedy grounded the Shuttle
0:22:56 > 0:23:00and paralysed NASA's manned space programme.
0:23:00 > 0:23:05But Americans could not give up the dream of exploring space.
0:23:05 > 0:23:07NASA set about a major redesign.
0:23:08 > 0:23:12Clearly, the solid rockets would have to be re-engineered,
0:23:12 > 0:23:18but NASA also seized the chance to make a host of other safety improvements.
0:23:21 > 0:23:28The astronauts appointed to fly the next mission followed every part of the redesign closely.
0:23:35 > 0:23:37Morton Thiokol, Utah.
0:23:40 > 0:23:43The first in a series of tests
0:23:43 > 0:23:45of the redesigned solid rocket.
0:23:45 > 0:23:48The critical path begins.
0:23:48 > 0:23:50The crew is here.
0:23:50 > 0:23:54Their success and, ultimately, their lives depend on the work of many.
0:23:57 > 0:24:03We're obviously interested in witnessing the test firing. It's step one, as was said earlier,
0:24:03 > 0:24:09- in getting us back into manned spaceflight.- In the solids, two rubbery O ring seals
0:24:09 > 0:24:15were supposed to stop a leak of hot gas. Now they're experimenting with a third O ring.
0:24:15 > 0:24:18This was its first test.
0:24:18 > 0:24:20Six, five, four,
0:24:20 > 0:24:23three, two, one.
0:24:23 > 0:24:25Fire!
0:24:27 > 0:24:33The ascent phase of this mission will be like a test flight. We have new solid rocket motors,
0:24:33 > 0:24:37the motors themselves have been greatly re-engineered,
0:24:37 > 0:24:40including parts of the booster.
0:24:40 > 0:24:45And all those things together, this will be the first flight test.
0:24:52 > 0:24:57Landing and stopping can be just as chancy as lift-off in this business.
0:24:57 > 0:25:02June last year. They roll the Shuttle slowly into a safety net.
0:25:03 > 0:25:10And also last summer, they finally had time to improve the spacecraft's unreliable brakes and tyres.
0:25:31 > 0:25:36'There are always going to be problems and glitches. That's what you expect.
0:25:36 > 0:25:41'Certainly all of us as crew are aware that this is a risky business
0:25:41 > 0:25:48'and the crew of the Challenger was no different. All we can do now is regroup and rebuild
0:25:48 > 0:25:53'and press on. We have to live with what happened and keep going.'
0:25:53 > 0:25:58We designed the Space Shuttle in the '70s without an escape system.
0:25:59 > 0:26:01And I think
0:26:01 > 0:26:03everyone realises that was a mistake.
0:26:03 > 0:26:08I don't think we'll ever see a rocket built again without an escape system.
0:26:11 > 0:26:14Hurricane Mesa, Utah.
0:26:15 > 0:26:19They're using a dummy to test a new escape system.
0:26:19 > 0:26:25The tractor rocket concept is an adaptation of the ejector seats used in military jet aircraft,
0:26:25 > 0:26:30only here the astronauts will be pulled, not pushed to safety.
0:26:30 > 0:26:35The engineers say it is a tested system with a 90% success rate.
0:26:36 > 0:26:38Pinky has come to watch.
0:26:38 > 0:26:43The most thing that goes through my mind is I hope I never do it.
0:26:43 > 0:26:49The orbiter has to be flying so the vehicle has to be intact and flying through the atmosphere.
0:26:49 > 0:26:54We couldn't bail out when the engines were running or if we lost control
0:26:54 > 0:26:59or if the vehicle was badly damaged. This system would not work for that.
0:27:23 > 0:27:27The system provides a narrow margin of safety at best.
0:27:27 > 0:27:31Escape is only possible under limited circumstances.
0:27:31 > 0:27:37Privately, some astronauts tell you the whole thing is a sop to public anxiety.
0:27:41 > 0:27:44'Three, two, one.'
0:27:44 > 0:27:49Whatever NASA's motives, an escape system was eventually included,
0:27:49 > 0:27:53along with a further 345 modifications.
0:27:53 > 0:27:59Only then was the Shuttle considered safe enough to go back into space.
0:28:03 > 0:28:06CHEERING AND APPLAUSE
0:28:09 > 0:28:12For over two years now...
0:28:13 > 0:28:16..each one of us here tonight has had a dream
0:28:16 > 0:28:19that one day
0:28:19 > 0:28:25a Shuttle would once again make its way to the launch pad to launch Americans into space.
0:28:26 > 0:28:30'Start. Three, two, one, zero.
0:28:30 > 0:28:33'And lift off! Lift off.
0:28:33 > 0:28:38'Americans return to space as Discovery clears the tower.'
0:28:38 > 0:28:44The Challenger disaster had shown conclusively that space flight was not a routine activity
0:28:44 > 0:28:47and the refit had cost over 20 billion
0:28:47 > 0:28:52so the Shuttle would never again be described as cheap.
0:28:52 > 0:28:58It needed to do something spectacular to prove that it was no white elephant.
0:28:58 > 0:29:00Soon it got its chance.
0:29:02 > 0:29:09In 1984, Horizon reported on plans to build the world's most ambitious telescope.
0:29:10 > 0:29:14The Hubble Space Telescope will see much further into the universe
0:29:14 > 0:29:16than has ever been possible before.
0:29:16 > 0:29:19Freed from the obscuring effects of the atmosphere,
0:29:19 > 0:29:25the optical system at the heart of the spacecraft will enable the telescope's mirror
0:29:25 > 0:29:29to resolve details ten times better than any instrument on the ground.
0:29:29 > 0:29:32When it's installed in the space telescope,
0:29:32 > 0:29:36this mirror is set to revolutionise our vision of the universe.
0:29:36 > 0:29:41It will allow us to search the stars for other solar systems that may harbour life
0:29:41 > 0:29:44and closer to home, we will be able to study the planets
0:29:44 > 0:29:51with a resolution equivalent to the Voyager probe only a few days away from its closest encounter.
0:29:51 > 0:29:54In purely numerical terms,
0:29:54 > 0:29:57it's as big or a bigger leap
0:29:57 > 0:30:01than occurred when Galileo first used a telescope,
0:30:01 > 0:30:06rather than the naked eye, to look at the universe and look at stars.
0:30:06 > 0:30:11We know for sure that every area of astronomy will be very profoundly affected.
0:30:11 > 0:30:15The space telescope will benefit from the presence of man in space,
0:30:15 > 0:30:20both to maintain its instruments and to carry out repairs if it breaks down.
0:30:20 > 0:30:25No-one had any idea how soon a breakdown would happen.
0:30:31 > 0:30:36In 1990, the Hubble Space Telescope was deployed into orbit.
0:30:38 > 0:30:41But when the telescope was used for the first time,
0:30:41 > 0:30:45the Hubble astronomers received a profound shock.
0:30:47 > 0:30:50Instead of the pin-sharp pictures they were expecting...
0:30:52 > 0:30:55..they got these smudges,
0:30:55 > 0:31:00barely better than ground-based telescopes could produce.
0:31:00 > 0:31:06The problem was the enormous mirror now seated at the heart of the telescope.
0:31:06 > 0:31:12It couldn't focus light perfectly because it had been polished a fraction out of shape.
0:31:13 > 0:31:19Decades of work, billions of dollars and the hopes of a generation of astronomers
0:31:19 > 0:31:21had been destroyed.
0:31:21 > 0:31:25Once again, NASA was under attack.
0:31:28 > 0:31:33Have we ended up with degraded science or cancelled science?
0:31:33 > 0:31:36If this aberration was such a textbook case,
0:31:36 > 0:31:38why wasn't it caught on the ground?
0:31:38 > 0:31:42What are the possible things that could have happened?
0:31:42 > 0:31:45How many straws are there on this camel's back?
0:31:45 > 0:31:50It would be dishonest to say the mood of the scientist is very happy right now.
0:31:50 > 0:31:54We're all frustrated, obviously. And I'll stop there.
0:31:54 > 0:31:59'The press conference where we announced Hubble's spherical aberration
0:31:59 > 0:32:03'was by far the worst day of my life. I was saying we messed it up.'
0:32:03 > 0:32:08So at that point, I was convinced the programme was dead.
0:32:11 > 0:32:13People began to disintegrate.
0:32:13 > 0:32:16Some had to be taken out by guards
0:32:16 > 0:32:19to rehabilitation centres for drugs and alcohol.
0:32:19 > 0:32:22The astronomy community was tearing itself apart.
0:32:22 > 0:32:25I personally felt like killing somebody
0:32:25 > 0:32:29because having invested 12 years of my life up to that point
0:32:29 > 0:32:34in this project, and seeing that this was a really major disaster for us...
0:32:35 > 0:32:38..you know, the reaction is that one.
0:32:38 > 0:32:45Everybody began blaming everybody about how could this have happened, how could such a mistake be made.
0:32:45 > 0:32:47It was a very bad time.
0:32:48 > 0:32:51The Hubble had to be saved at all costs.
0:32:56 > 0:33:02Scientists and engineers began desperately trying to find a solution to its problem.
0:33:04 > 0:33:08..which we've listed as mechanical correction or deformation.
0:33:08 > 0:33:15'We formed a committee, a strategy panel to come up with ideas and about 30 suggestions came up.'
0:33:15 > 0:33:17Number 85...
0:33:18 > 0:33:21'We put everything on the table,'
0:33:21 > 0:33:25even the craziest idea, to see what we could do to fix the problem.
0:33:26 > 0:33:31This is replacement of the secondary, just as a straight correction.
0:33:31 > 0:33:35They ranged from the shuttle bringing the spacecraft back to Earth
0:33:35 > 0:33:37and replacing the primary mirror...
0:33:37 > 0:33:43..to send astronauts up and actually, inside the tube of the telescope,
0:33:43 > 0:33:48and do something to the optics, which was crazy, but we discussed it.
0:33:48 > 0:33:50A full aperture correction...
0:33:50 > 0:33:56There were ideas even to try to re-coat or change the shape of the primary on orbit with heaters.
0:33:56 > 0:34:02To put a mirror in front of the telescope which was slightly bent, so you'd have the correction in it.
0:34:02 > 0:34:05Trying to move the instruments back by several metres.
0:34:05 > 0:34:09- Front end of the telescope... - A report...- I don't have a picture.
0:34:09 > 0:34:12And so on and so forth.
0:34:17 > 0:34:21Among the proposals was the ingenious solution,
0:34:21 > 0:34:28an instrument that would match the error in the mirror in reverse and cancel it out.
0:34:28 > 0:34:34This optical fix was called the Corrective Optics Space Telescope Axial Replacement,
0:34:34 > 0:34:36or COSTAR for short.
0:34:42 > 0:34:46There was no way of knowing whether COSTAR would actually work.
0:34:46 > 0:34:51But hopes of saving the Hubble now lay with this intricate design.
0:34:56 > 0:35:00Plans for an ambitious repair mission began to take shape.
0:35:00 > 0:35:04Everybody knew what happened when we failed with Hubble the first time
0:35:04 > 0:35:09and everybody knew the stakes were very high. A second failure would be unforgivable.
0:35:09 > 0:35:12I mean, there were words that were even...
0:35:12 > 0:35:15Such as, "This is the measure of NASA.
0:35:15 > 0:35:20"This mission is the measure. This mission defines... Is there a NASA?"
0:35:20 > 0:35:23There was enough pressure to just do this mission,
0:35:23 > 0:35:27but now suddenly, instead of the future of Hubble,
0:35:27 > 0:35:31the future of your entire space programme is depending on success.
0:35:35 > 0:35:40NASA was relying on the Shuttle and its crew.
0:35:40 > 0:35:46Along with COSTAR, they would also have to put in a new camera and make a host of other repairs.
0:35:47 > 0:35:52It would mean a record 35 hours of space walks over five days.
0:35:53 > 0:35:57By December 1993, they were ready to go.
0:35:58 > 0:36:03'Houston, we are inspired, we are ready. Let's go fix this thing.'
0:36:04 > 0:36:07The astronauts got to work.
0:36:08 > 0:36:12They knew the tiniest mistake could be catastrophic for the mission.
0:36:12 > 0:36:15'Four, five, six.
0:36:15 > 0:36:18'You're clear in. You got it.'
0:36:18 > 0:36:21'Look at that baby!
0:36:22 > 0:36:24'Beautiful, spanking-new WF/PC.'
0:36:26 > 0:36:30First came the delicate task of putting in the new camera.
0:36:35 > 0:36:41Later, COSTAR was manoeuvred into position with less than an inch of clearance on either side.
0:36:44 > 0:36:47'Would you like to see it?
0:36:47 > 0:36:49'Good work, guys.
0:36:49 > 0:36:51'Whoo!'
0:36:56 > 0:37:00The astronauts had completed every task to perfection.
0:37:00 > 0:37:03Now it was over to the scientists on the ground.
0:37:05 > 0:37:08Then it dawned on us - wait a minute, this is only half the job.
0:37:08 > 0:37:11Will that camera work? Will COSTAR work?
0:37:11 > 0:37:15Did we get the right prescription for those glasses to put on Hubble?
0:37:23 > 0:37:28Two weeks later, it was time to put the repairs to the test.
0:37:29 > 0:37:32First, they tried out the new camera.
0:37:33 > 0:37:37'As usual, everything on Hubble happens at night for some reason
0:37:37 > 0:37:41'and the first images were scheduled to come down at 1am.
0:37:41 > 0:37:44'The whole camera team were around the computer screen.
0:37:44 > 0:37:51'The image slowly built, so you see the bright things first and right in the centre was a very bright star.'
0:37:51 > 0:37:53CHEERING
0:37:53 > 0:37:55- One bright...- Right there.
0:37:55 > 0:37:57CHEERING We did it.
0:37:57 > 0:37:59Wait, wait, wait.
0:38:01 > 0:38:05- Bring it up. - Come on, come on, come on.
0:38:06 > 0:38:09Those are actually stars. Those are real stars.
0:38:09 > 0:38:12LAUGHTER
0:38:12 > 0:38:15CORK POPS
0:38:15 > 0:38:17CHEERING AND APPLAUSE
0:38:18 > 0:38:22'Everyone was thrilled. There were cheers.'
0:38:22 > 0:38:24It was black and white.
0:38:24 > 0:38:28Before, we didn't know, and afterwards, we knew. We had it.
0:38:38 > 0:38:43Astronomers saw in spectacular detail for the first time where stars are born...
0:38:47 > 0:38:49..how they die...
0:38:52 > 0:38:56..and back in time to the origins of the universe.
0:38:59 > 0:39:05Without the Shuttle, it wouldn't have been possible to get these images from Hubble.
0:39:10 > 0:39:15This incredible success was a major milestone for NASA.
0:39:16 > 0:39:21Hubble was saved and the Shuttle was back in the nation's good books.
0:39:22 > 0:39:29But the rescue mission would also pave the way for a project of even more extraordinary ambition.
0:39:34 > 0:39:39Ideas for a futuristic space station had been around for decades.
0:39:39 > 0:39:44Many of them inhabited the murky world between science fact and fiction.
0:39:45 > 0:39:49But NASA had firm plans to create one for real.
0:39:53 > 0:39:58In 1984, President Reagan revealed to the world and to Mrs Thatcher
0:39:58 > 0:40:01models of a permanent, orbital space station.
0:40:01 > 0:40:03One of its great...
0:40:03 > 0:40:07But the plans stalled as NASA scientists found it impossible
0:40:07 > 0:40:11to decide what that space station should be like.
0:40:13 > 0:40:17The Russians meanwhile had no such problems.
0:40:18 > 0:40:22They had had Salyut 1 in orbit since 1971.
0:40:24 > 0:40:31And they had followed this success by building the even more complex Mir space station.
0:40:34 > 0:40:36Meanwhile, by 1993,
0:40:36 > 0:40:40the US had spent an alarming eight billion dollars
0:40:40 > 0:40:45on countless re-designs without building a single piece of hardware.
0:40:45 > 0:40:48Congress was threatening to pull the plug.
0:40:52 > 0:40:58But something had happened that would give the US space station a reprieve.
0:41:02 > 0:41:06The old enemy, the Soviet Union, had collapsed.
0:41:06 > 0:41:10Russia's once spectacular space programme was almost bankrupt.
0:41:10 > 0:41:14In the new era of peace between nations,
0:41:14 > 0:41:18NASA's chief administrator had an idea.
0:41:19 > 0:41:23Dan Goldin invited the Russians to collaborate.
0:41:23 > 0:41:29This is a historic moment. I'm just very excited. Mr Koptev, I want to give you a hug.
0:41:29 > 0:41:31APPLAUSE
0:41:31 > 0:41:35It was a hug that would get Shuttle astronauts on to Mir.
0:41:35 > 0:41:40I'm Jerry Linenger, of course, and I'm in the base block
0:41:40 > 0:41:43where you see most pictures that come out of Mir.
0:41:43 > 0:41:45This is where we gather to eat...
0:41:45 > 0:41:50Jerry Linenger was the fourth American astronaut to join the Russians on Mir.
0:41:50 > 0:41:54This is the commander's station. Vasily says hello to everybody...
0:41:54 > 0:41:58'I had a sense that I was doing something good for the country.
0:41:58 > 0:42:03'I was about 14 when I saw the moon landings and I said, "I'd like to do that some day."'
0:42:03 > 0:42:06You get lucky sometimes.
0:42:06 > 0:42:13Mir has been lived in almost continuously since she was launched in 1986.
0:42:14 > 0:42:16SPEAKS IN RUSSIAN
0:42:36 > 0:42:39But life on Mir was far from perfect.
0:42:39 > 0:42:42The ageing space station was falling apart.
0:42:42 > 0:42:45Oxygen generators repeatedly broke down.
0:42:45 > 0:42:49There were daily chemical leaks. Even the toilet malfunctioned.
0:42:51 > 0:42:57We had many system failures and they were in need of your constant attention.
0:42:57 > 0:43:01And many days I'd start an experiment in the morning to get it running,
0:43:01 > 0:43:08then I'd run over to help hacksaw through a pipe and plug the ends, then run back to my experiment.
0:43:10 > 0:43:14Most dangerous of all, in the sixth week of Linenger's stay,
0:43:14 > 0:43:16a fire broke out.
0:43:18 > 0:43:24I looked down the passageway and I could see a very large flame...
0:43:25 > 0:43:28..bursting out of the canister,
0:43:28 > 0:43:32smoke billowing out, and I knew we had a big problem.
0:43:32 > 0:43:37The fire was blocking the exit to one of the two escape ships.
0:43:37 > 0:43:43If the crew couldn't put it out, some of them would be left behind to die.
0:43:45 > 0:43:51Cosmonaut Valery Korzun finally put out the fire, but smoke continued to fill Mir.
0:44:02 > 0:44:07Linenger was relieved when his 19-week stay in orbit was over.
0:44:08 > 0:44:13Watching the Shuttle coming up underneath us at 18,000 miles an hour
0:44:13 > 0:44:17was the most beautiful sight in the world.
0:44:26 > 0:44:28I was ready to go home
0:44:28 > 0:44:31and for me, it was a moment of triumph.
0:44:31 > 0:44:34The Shuttle's there. I'd made it.
0:44:34 > 0:44:38And when the Shuttle came and docked, it was glorious.
0:44:54 > 0:45:00Despite its faults, the Russian collaboration was a turning point in NASA's plans for a space station.
0:45:01 > 0:45:07They now had valuable data on how humans reacted to long stays in space.
0:45:07 > 0:45:12And it had secured co-operation for an International Space Station.
0:45:13 > 0:45:15'T minus 60 seconds and counting.
0:45:15 > 0:45:20'Everything looking good for launch of Space Shuttle Endeavour from Kennedy Space Center.
0:45:20 > 0:45:22'T minus 50 seconds.'
0:45:22 > 0:45:28Now that the Shuttle had smoothed the path for the new space station, it was sent to build it.
0:45:28 > 0:45:31'Ten, nine, eight,
0:45:31 > 0:45:33'seven, six, five,
0:45:33 > 0:45:36'four, three,
0:45:36 > 0:45:39'two, one, zero
0:45:39 > 0:45:42'and lift-off of Endeavour,
0:45:42 > 0:45:46'going where East and West do meet at the International Space Station.'
0:45:46 > 0:45:48CHEERING
0:45:53 > 0:45:59'Endeavour, Houston. Congratulations to all the members of the crew. It's a beautiful sight.'
0:46:06 > 0:46:10The space station began a new era in the colonisation of space.
0:46:10 > 0:46:14Nations which were sworn enemies only years before worked together
0:46:14 > 0:46:18to build a truly international machine.
0:46:27 > 0:46:33In the first five years of construction, the Shuttle made 16 trips to the space station,
0:46:33 > 0:46:35but it was slow work.
0:46:35 > 0:46:39By 2002, NASA was under pressure to do more with the Shuttle
0:46:39 > 0:46:42than just use it as a ferry to the ISS.
0:46:42 > 0:46:47Its answer was to launch a scientific study mission,
0:46:47 > 0:46:52though the lessons learned would have more grim implications.
0:46:57 > 0:47:01Columbia, the oldest craft in the fleet,
0:47:01 > 0:47:05was fitted with a state-of-the-art space laboratory.
0:47:10 > 0:47:13This mission would be the first to use it.
0:47:15 > 0:47:20It meant that for NASA and the seven astronauts on board, there was a lot at stake.
0:47:28 > 0:47:32And for 16 days, everything went according to plan.
0:47:32 > 0:47:35The team worked round the clock on their experiments.
0:47:35 > 0:47:41If we didn't work 24 hours a day, we'd be giving up eight hours of sleep time
0:47:41 > 0:47:43that could be used for science.
0:47:43 > 0:47:47So the intent is to pack each minute of the 24 hours
0:47:47 > 0:47:49that we're on orbit with science.
0:48:01 > 0:48:07After two weeks in space, the science mission was declared a triumph.
0:48:07 > 0:48:11All that was left was to gather their results,
0:48:11 > 0:48:15re-enter the Earth's atmosphere and come home.
0:48:15 > 0:48:19The entries are a bit better than the launch. It's a bit quieter.
0:48:19 > 0:48:22It's not quite as violent and you can enjoy it a little bit.
0:48:23 > 0:48:27At the end of 16 days, we'll come back and land,
0:48:27 > 0:48:32slowing from 17,000-plus miles per hour down to 200-plus miles per hour.
0:48:32 > 0:48:37We're hoping our commander will make a smooth landing and the mission will be over.
0:48:49 > 0:48:52ALL: Bye-bye!
0:49:03 > 0:49:05On the 1st of February, 2003,
0:49:05 > 0:49:09Columbia began its descent back to Earth.
0:49:14 > 0:49:19As the Shuttle raced over the Pacific towards the US,
0:49:19 > 0:49:24the crew put on their suits, preparing themselves for a routine landing.
0:49:25 > 0:49:29'Columbia's a beautiful ship, performing magnificently.'
0:49:29 > 0:49:34At 8.44am, Columbia re-entered the Earth's atmosphere.
0:49:36 > 0:49:38Still everything appeared normal.
0:49:44 > 0:49:48'There might be some plasma now.'
0:49:59 > 0:50:01- GNC, Flight?- Flight, GNC.
0:50:01 > 0:50:06Everything look good to you? Control and rates and everything is nominal?
0:50:06 > 0:50:11- Control's been stable. We have good trims. I don't see anything out of the ordinary.- OK.
0:50:11 > 0:50:14'It's noisy in there.'
0:50:16 > 0:50:21Then, just 22 minutes before touchdown at 8.54 in the morning,
0:50:21 > 0:50:25there was an unusual reading from one of the Shuttle's many sensors.
0:50:25 > 0:50:28- Flight, MMACS.- Go ahead, MMACS.
0:50:28 > 0:50:33I've just lost four separate temperature transducers on the left side of the vehicle,
0:50:33 > 0:50:35hydraulic return temperatures.
0:50:36 > 0:50:39Columbia, Houston, comm check.
0:50:48 > 0:50:52Columbia, Houston, UHF comm check.
0:50:52 > 0:50:54TOTAL SILENCE
0:51:06 > 0:51:09Columbia, Houston, UHF comm check.
0:51:13 > 0:51:16Columbia, Houston, UHF comm check.
0:51:21 > 0:51:24At 9.16, the truth dawned on Mission Control.
0:51:25 > 0:51:28The Space Shuttle had been lost.
0:51:31 > 0:51:3461 kilometres above the ground,
0:51:34 > 0:51:38the Shuttle had disintegrated, killing all seven people on board.
0:51:38 > 0:51:43Once again, NASA found itself asking the terrible question,
0:51:43 > 0:51:46"What had gone wrong with the Shuttle?"
0:51:49 > 0:51:53Within minutes of the disaster,
0:51:53 > 0:51:56NASA's investigators had swung into action.
0:51:57 > 0:52:01They began to concentrate on an event that had happened
0:52:01 > 0:52:04at the very beginning of Columbia's voyage.
0:52:05 > 0:52:07It was something to do
0:52:07 > 0:52:10with the Shuttle's large, orange fuel tank.
0:52:17 > 0:52:20During this particular launch,
0:52:20 > 0:52:25it appears that a large chunk of this spray-on foam broke off
0:52:25 > 0:52:30at the place where the Shuttle attaches to the tank up by under the nose.
0:52:32 > 0:52:38This video shows a piece of orange insulating foam falling off the fuel tank
0:52:38 > 0:52:4181 seconds into the flight.
0:52:45 > 0:52:50The chunk appears to be about the size of a briefcase, maybe a little bit bigger,
0:52:50 > 0:52:54and weighs somewhere around two and a half to three pounds.
0:52:57 > 0:53:02The foam had struck and damaged the wing's leading edge,
0:53:02 > 0:53:08an area covered by ultra-strong, grey, carbon-carbon panels designed to be indestructible.
0:53:16 > 0:53:21The leading edge, the reinforced carbon-carbon, is hard, like a rock.
0:53:21 > 0:53:27And for foam to have damaged the RCC enough
0:53:27 > 0:53:30to cause an accident still surprises me.
0:53:37 > 0:53:42But tests showed that a foam block could indeed puncture the tiles,
0:53:42 > 0:53:46inevitably leading to a catastrophic failure of the heat shield.
0:53:50 > 0:53:54Some felt that NASA could have saved Columbia and its crew.
0:53:57 > 0:54:01That they could have been brought back to Earth alive.
0:54:05 > 0:54:10NASA knew a chunk of foam had hit the orbiter during launch.
0:54:12 > 0:54:17It could have used a telescope on Earth to examine the Shuttle in orbit
0:54:17 > 0:54:20to see if any tiles had been damaged.
0:54:22 > 0:54:28Or it could have asked the astronauts to open a hatch and take a look.
0:54:33 > 0:54:36Once it had discovered the damage,
0:54:36 > 0:54:42NASA could have asked the crew to bring the Shuttle in at a different angle, favouring the undamaged wing.
0:54:46 > 0:54:49You might have led sort of sideways,
0:54:49 > 0:54:52crabbing the Shuttle in, scorching the good side,
0:54:52 > 0:54:55protecting the damaged side.
0:55:00 > 0:55:03But even if this wasn't possible,
0:55:03 > 0:55:07NASA still had another much more ambitious option -
0:55:07 > 0:55:10a rescue mission.
0:55:14 > 0:55:20At the time of the disaster, the Shuttle Atlantis was being prepared for launch.
0:55:20 > 0:55:24NASA could have sent it up to rescue the crew within weeks.
0:55:30 > 0:55:35A rescue mission like this would have been a major achievement for NASA
0:55:35 > 0:55:38and a public relations coup,
0:55:38 > 0:55:43proof that they had the expertise and skills to do remarkable things.
0:55:44 > 0:55:50The tragedy is none of these options was even considered.
0:55:57 > 0:56:03Columbia was a powerful reminder that manned space flight is inherently dangerous.
0:56:04 > 0:56:08But America was adamant that the names of the dead should be honoured
0:56:08 > 0:56:11and that the programme must continue.
0:56:13 > 0:56:16Another re-design began.
0:56:16 > 0:56:20The foam insulation on the fuel tank was improved
0:56:20 > 0:56:24and systems were put in place to check for tile damage in orbit.
0:56:27 > 0:56:31Two years later, a new crew prepared to return to space
0:56:31 > 0:56:35on the 114th flight in the Shuttle fleet's career.
0:56:36 > 0:56:42But even as the Shuttle orbited, NASA had already decided it was time to call it a day.
0:56:43 > 0:56:49Its flawed, compromised design means there are just too many things that can go wrong.
0:56:49 > 0:56:56Since 2003, there has been a collective crossing of fingers every time a Shuttle has launched
0:56:56 > 0:57:00and every time one has returned safely.
0:57:00 > 0:57:03With the end of the programme, that anxiety is over.
0:57:05 > 0:57:09But what a ride the Shuttle has given us!
0:57:10 > 0:57:17The programme has launched more people into space than all previous American space missions combined
0:57:17 > 0:57:22and allowed humans to continue to reach out beyond our planet.
0:57:27 > 0:57:34The Hubble Space Telescope has given us a view on the dawn of time and the birth of stars.
0:57:36 > 0:57:42The construction of the International Space Station has shown what can be achieved
0:57:42 > 0:57:45when once hostile nations collaborate.
0:57:49 > 0:57:55And Earth observations have given us valuable insights into the changing face of our home.
0:58:01 > 0:58:07But perhaps more than anything, the Shuttle has shown us what we are capable of.
0:58:07 > 0:58:11It has provided us with a stepping stone to the missions of the future.
0:58:11 > 0:58:15Where that future takes us will be up to the next generation
0:58:15 > 0:58:18of engineers, politicians and scientists
0:58:18 > 0:58:22who take on the great endeavour of space exploration.
0:58:47 > 0:58:51Subtitles by Subtext for Red Bee Media Ltd 2011
0:58:51 > 0:58:54Email subtitling@bbc.co.uk