0:00:05 > 0:00:07If there ever were a place on Earth
0:00:07 > 0:00:10we'd expect to be pristine...
0:00:11 > 0:00:13..it's here...
0:00:13 > 0:00:16the Amazon.
0:00:16 > 0:00:21Covering an area the size of Australia,
0:00:21 > 0:00:25the region is a world icon of biodiversity.
0:00:30 > 0:00:37And more than this, the Amazon's complex ecosystem has a global impact.
0:00:37 > 0:00:42The forest acts as a huge carbon store
0:00:42 > 0:00:46and generates patterns of rainfall way beyond its own borders.
0:00:50 > 0:00:53Which is why the eyes of the world are fixed on the environmental war
0:00:53 > 0:00:56between developers and conservationists.
0:00:59 > 0:01:05One side is pressing to exploit the region to satisfy the world's hunger for timber, beef and soya.
0:01:05 > 0:01:13The other is fighting to preserve what they see as the largest remaining wilderness on Earth.
0:01:15 > 0:01:21But new discoveries are challenging the basic beliefs of both sides in this battle.
0:01:23 > 0:01:27Many people still today have an image of the Amazon as pristine forest.
0:01:27 > 0:01:30Archaeology is showing us a very different image.
0:01:32 > 0:01:37There are archaeological sites in the Amazon which are larger than contemporary cities,
0:01:37 > 0:01:44which suggest something like around five to six million people in the Amazon in the 16th century.
0:01:44 > 0:01:51The idea of an essentially untouched environment is being questioned.
0:01:51 > 0:01:58Since the first humans started settling into the Amazon, they started transforming the environment.
0:01:58 > 0:02:03To many, these new ideas are down right dangerous.
0:02:03 > 0:02:10It's misreading history, for one thing, and it's encouraging the developers to come
0:02:10 > 0:02:16and denude it because they say if it was done once they can do it again and it'll all grow back.
0:02:16 > 0:02:19But to others, the truth is not negotiable.
0:02:19 > 0:02:24One thing we know is that there were, in pre-history,
0:02:24 > 0:02:27complex societies from the north, south, east and west.
0:02:27 > 0:02:36And the bottom line is that to deny that is to deny the reality of the Amazonian past.
0:02:37 > 0:02:40With the threats to the rainforest ever increasing,
0:02:40 > 0:02:45there is much riding on how natural the Amazon really is.
0:02:45 > 0:02:49Is the forest virgin or man-made?
0:03:01 > 0:03:07Since Europeans first encountered the Amazon in the 16th century, it has presented an enigma.
0:03:07 > 0:03:15Sometimes it appeared to be a lush paradise, and sometimes a green hell.
0:03:16 > 0:03:20It's been seen as a place abounding in life,
0:03:20 > 0:03:24but also as a hostile emptiness.
0:03:33 > 0:03:38The history of humanity's dealings with these mysterious forests
0:03:38 > 0:03:41has been a history of shifting ideas.
0:03:43 > 0:03:45It's the last wilderness,
0:03:45 > 0:03:48it's a business opportunity,
0:03:48 > 0:03:51it's the lungs of the planet.
0:03:52 > 0:03:57And every so often a new idea appears and surprises everyone.
0:04:02 > 0:04:07This is the first documentary ever made in the Amazon.
0:04:07 > 0:04:11It was shot in 1922 by a Portuguese filmmaker called Silvino Santos,
0:04:14 > 0:04:17and it astonished its audience.
0:04:17 > 0:04:20It showed an Amazon teeming with human activity.
0:04:23 > 0:04:28He showed an Amazon that was populated, full of production.
0:04:28 > 0:04:32It had all sorts of fish,
0:04:32 > 0:04:35it had rubber, it had Brazil nuts.
0:04:35 > 0:04:42We have a scene of a factory. It's amazing, you know, the way that Silvino shows that.
0:04:42 > 0:04:45Even today people don't believe it, you know?
0:04:45 > 0:04:48People don't believe that that's the Amazon.
0:04:48 > 0:04:53This film was the first challenge to popular notions of the Amazon
0:04:53 > 0:04:58as a sparsely populated, virgin wilderness.
0:04:58 > 0:05:00It's really a modern region, you know?
0:05:00 > 0:05:06It's not something that is from another time, because that's another vision of the Amazon, isn't it,
0:05:06 > 0:05:13it's something that's pristine, you know, it's from another era, really.
0:05:15 > 0:05:19The popular vision of the Amazon as pristine
0:05:19 > 0:05:26dates back to the period after the Age of Discovery, when Europeans had encountered unfamiliar new lands.
0:05:30 > 0:05:36These sorts of concepts of pristine really had to do with their conception of land tenure,
0:05:36 > 0:05:40so if they didn't see people actually fencing in the land,
0:05:40 > 0:05:44cutting all the trees down, burning up the land and converting it into,
0:05:44 > 0:05:48say, cattle pastures or other sorts of major landscape transformations,
0:05:48 > 0:05:51then they often didn't consider there to be any kind of land use
0:05:51 > 0:05:57going on and therefore these landscapes could be called primeval, pristine, virgin, what have you.
0:05:57 > 0:06:03In Latin it was called terra nullius, the land of nobody.
0:06:04 > 0:06:09Von Humboldt was one of several naturalists with that kind of idea.
0:06:09 > 0:06:15Alexander Von Humboldt was a German scientist and explorer who promoted the idea
0:06:15 > 0:06:20of the Amazon as a virgin paradise after visiting the region in 1800.
0:06:20 > 0:06:26He'd been impressed by the sheer abundance of the forest.
0:06:26 > 0:06:28"One may almost regard man
0:06:28 > 0:06:32"as not being essential to the order of nature.
0:06:32 > 0:06:34"The earth is loaded with plants,
0:06:34 > 0:06:38"and nothing impedes their free development.
0:06:38 > 0:06:44"Here, in a fertile country, adorned with eternal verdure,
0:06:44 > 0:06:48"we seek in vain the traces of the power of man."
0:06:48 > 0:06:55In Humboldt's mind the indigenous people had no lasting impact on the forest in which they lived.
0:06:55 > 0:07:02He encouraged a number of artists to visualise his highly romanticised view of the Amazon
0:07:02 > 0:07:03and its people.
0:07:05 > 0:07:11The indigenous people are grouped in with nature itself as if they are part of the background
0:07:11 > 0:07:18scene to a pristine environment, and that gives us in the case of the Amazon - which, indeed, had very
0:07:18 > 0:07:26low population density, scattered settlements of forest peoples - a seeming aura of
0:07:26 > 0:07:32primeval nature, untouched by human hands and particularly untouched by
0:07:32 > 0:07:38agrarian technologies which had the affect of altering environments in managing them for human purposes.
0:07:40 > 0:07:44By considering the indigenous people as part of nature,
0:07:44 > 0:07:50Europeans were able to envision an untouched, pristine forest.
0:07:50 > 0:07:54This view of the Amazon and its people has dominated
0:07:54 > 0:07:57the way that most of us have thought about the region ever since.
0:08:00 > 0:08:07It was the view that the American geographer Hamilton Rice brought with him to the Amazon in 1925.
0:08:09 > 0:08:12The age of exploration is not yet over.
0:08:12 > 0:08:16Great areas still exist awaiting investigation.
0:08:16 > 0:08:23Besides being the largest river in the world, the Amazon flows through the greatest forest.
0:08:23 > 0:08:28No more savage wilderness exists anywhere on Earth.
0:08:28 > 0:08:34In this forest the trees are so thick, the jungle so tangled, the swamp so extensive
0:08:34 > 0:08:40that it is impossible to travel except along rivers many times difficult of navigation.
0:08:43 > 0:08:49Hamilton Rice set out to map the Amazon wilderness with the latest technologies.
0:08:52 > 0:08:56The Hamilton Rice expedition was super well equipped
0:08:56 > 0:08:59with a hydroplane to have the aerial views,
0:08:59 > 0:09:02and also they had a radio system.
0:09:02 > 0:09:05So it was a big, big enterprise.
0:09:05 > 0:09:09The new auxiliary method of exploration and surveying,
0:09:09 > 0:09:14namely photography from the air, was successfully employed in the exploration of difficult
0:09:14 > 0:09:19country for the first time in this expedition along the Rio Negro, the Rio Branco...
0:09:19 > 0:09:24I think Hamilton Rice portrayed the Amazon as his American audience want
0:09:24 > 0:09:32to see it, as the empty space to be conquered, a space that was easy to put on a map.
0:09:32 > 0:09:38You could travel over it, you could dominate it with your technology.
0:09:38 > 0:09:43This portrayal of wilderness would have resonated with an American
0:09:43 > 0:09:51audience whose own recent history was one of conquering the American West and its Indian peoples.
0:09:51 > 0:09:55In this wilderness, usually close to the rivers, live scattered tribes of
0:09:55 > 0:10:02Indians eking out a bare existence in a hard and exacting environment.
0:10:05 > 0:10:09Rice brought American science and racial ideas to bear
0:10:09 > 0:10:12on the indigenous peoples that he came across.
0:10:12 > 0:10:18We took anthropological measurements to add to the data that we were gathering to bring back.
0:10:20 > 0:10:29It's a very good example of turning the human into natural history.
0:10:29 > 0:10:32You know, you took... you measure, you make it...
0:10:32 > 0:10:39you know you've got the profile vision, you have the front vision, and create your object of study.
0:10:39 > 0:10:44The Indian, put down anywhere by himself in the wilderness, can survive.
0:10:44 > 0:10:52His adaptability to his environment is admirably attuned, but any initiative for progress is lacking.
0:10:55 > 0:11:01To Hamilton Rice the indigenous peoples were almost like wildlife -
0:11:01 > 0:11:07too few and too primitive to make any impact on the pristine vastness that surrounded them.
0:11:07 > 0:11:10They were, in effect, irrelevant.
0:11:12 > 0:11:18Today archaeologists and anthropologists are challenging this simplistic view.
0:11:25 > 0:11:27There is evidence that hunter-gatherer
0:11:27 > 0:11:33communities have been living in the Amazon for more than 10,000 years,
0:11:33 > 0:11:40but until recently they were considered to have minimal effect on their environment.
0:11:46 > 0:11:50Now research on how current hunter-gatherers move about the forest,
0:11:50 > 0:11:55creating temporary camps, is revealing something unexpected.
0:11:59 > 0:12:03Today's hunter-gatherers in the Amazon are not
0:12:03 > 0:12:09passively adapting to the forest, but they are actively managing it.
0:12:09 > 0:12:14And, intentionally or unintentionally, they are creating
0:12:14 > 0:12:20patches of forest with wild edible plants like palms and tree fruits.
0:12:26 > 0:12:30Every time they open a camp they are disturbing the forest and they are
0:12:30 > 0:12:35creating a new type of forest that is a more rich forest.
0:12:39 > 0:12:45The result is a forest that's rather less virgin than we imagined.
0:12:45 > 0:12:49It's an anthropogenic - or man-made - forest,
0:12:49 > 0:12:54one that owes its character not just to the interplay of natural forces
0:12:54 > 0:12:58but has also been significantly shaped by the people who have lived in it.
0:13:01 > 0:13:06Some plants, if you collect them and then throw the seeds away in your garbage, well, then they do better.
0:13:06 > 0:13:09And so the fruits are bigger and then you say,
0:13:09 > 0:13:14"These are better than the ones over there, so we'll use more of these."
0:13:14 > 0:13:18So you're selecting upon the plants that have already been selected by where you threw them away.
0:13:20 > 0:13:27And this thing then grows into a tree and is later perhaps distributed by other organisms
0:13:27 > 0:13:30that also like the pulp of that fruit tree, and they could then
0:13:30 > 0:13:36move into such places and spread the human effect around, but it's still an anthropogenic effect.
0:13:41 > 0:13:47Every time they abandon each of these camps, when they return,
0:13:47 > 0:13:51most of this forest is not any more a natural forest,
0:13:51 > 0:13:53but is like a small garden.
0:13:55 > 0:13:58Over a period of years, a hundred years, and over a period
0:13:58 > 0:14:05of millennia, this forest that just started with the opening of a camp is going to be a pretty managed forest.
0:14:13 > 0:14:19For millennia, hunter-gatherers of one kind or another have been living across the Amazon,
0:14:19 > 0:14:25and all this time they've been reshaping a forest we've thought to be pristine.
0:14:27 > 0:14:33But surprisingly this idea of a forest shaped by humans is not a new one.
0:14:43 > 0:14:49450 years ago the first European explorers to set foot in the Amazon
0:14:49 > 0:14:55gave a very different account of the region and its inhabitants.
0:14:55 > 0:15:00In 1541 the Spanish conquistador Francisco de Orellana
0:15:00 > 0:15:05sailed down the Amazon river in search of El Dorado.
0:15:05 > 0:15:09And although he never found the mythical City of Gold,
0:15:09 > 0:15:15he left a rich testimony of the wonders he encountered throughout the epic journey.
0:15:16 > 0:15:19It's a very important document,
0:15:19 > 0:15:23because it's the first written thing that we have by a European
0:15:23 > 0:15:26about the Amazon and its people in the early 16th century.
0:15:29 > 0:15:33"The further we went, the more thickly populated
0:15:33 > 0:15:36"and better did we find the land.
0:15:36 > 0:15:41"There were many roads here that enter into the interior of the land,
0:15:41 > 0:15:43"very fine highways.
0:15:45 > 0:15:52"Inland from the river to a distance of six miles, more or less, there could be seen some very large cities
0:15:52 > 0:16:00"that glisten in white and, besides this, the land is as fertile and as normal in appearance as our Spain."
0:16:01 > 0:16:04He couldn't believe how gorgeous the culture was.
0:16:04 > 0:16:09He raved over the beautiful pottery which the women made,
0:16:09 > 0:16:14and the clothing, the beautiful painted robes that people wore, just amazed him.
0:16:16 > 0:16:20And they were struck by the enormous biodiversity,
0:16:20 > 0:16:24just thriving with life,
0:16:24 > 0:16:27thought of as a bountiful paradise, a Garden of Eden.
0:16:29 > 0:16:30And indigenous peoples
0:16:30 > 0:16:36who they came across found to be very healthy, they appeared to have
0:16:36 > 0:16:37a very good diets..
0:16:37 > 0:16:42The Spanish there, they went so hungry they had to eat their leather belts.
0:16:42 > 0:16:50They were absolutely incapable of fishing or hunting in the forest.
0:16:50 > 0:16:57So the admiration they must have had for the Indians who could furnish them a great amount of food.
0:16:57 > 0:17:01And they talk about maize, about bread, probably manioc bread.
0:17:01 > 0:17:07They talk about fish and turtles and all sorts of nuts and fruits.
0:17:09 > 0:17:14Orellana's account was quite literally unique.
0:17:14 > 0:17:17No later traveller confirmed what he'd seen.
0:17:19 > 0:17:27When you compare the chronicles from the 16th into the 17th century you see something totally different.
0:17:27 > 0:17:28A hundred years later,
0:17:28 > 0:17:34they all have disappeared. I mean, those large settlements,
0:17:34 > 0:17:37they will find just a house or two,
0:17:37 > 0:17:40a village or two, things like that.
0:17:44 > 0:17:50Where were all the people and all the towns that Orellana had reported seeing?
0:17:50 > 0:17:53Could he have concocted a fictitious account
0:17:53 > 0:17:56or had something cataclysmic happened?
0:17:59 > 0:18:01And there's argument about that.
0:18:01 > 0:18:09So was he exaggerating his claims for the Spanish court, or was it accurate?
0:18:09 > 0:18:15On his return to Spain, Orellana fell out of favour with the court and as a result his extraordinary
0:18:15 > 0:18:19account of the Amazon went unpublished for centuries.
0:18:20 > 0:18:27What we do know now, is that in the Amazon, like the rest of South and North America,
0:18:27 > 0:18:32the arrival of Europeans like Orellana and subsequent colonists
0:18:32 > 0:18:37and missionaries brought catastrophe for the indigenous population.
0:18:39 > 0:18:46The people who lived on those places disappeared because of diseases, slavery, warfare.
0:18:46 > 0:18:49They were like, you know, the spread of diseases was very, very strong.
0:18:49 > 0:18:55Smallpox, the flu, it had a very strong effect on those people.
0:18:57 > 0:19:02It is thought that maybe up to 90, 95% of indigenous peoples were actually decimated
0:19:02 > 0:19:06by European diseases to which they had very little resistance.
0:19:08 > 0:19:12So what Europeans after Orellana saw when they visited the Amazon
0:19:12 > 0:19:22was a sparsely-populated region inhabited by the few survivors of these devastating waves of disease.
0:19:22 > 0:19:29By the 18th century we begin to see the description of forests, pristine forests.
0:19:31 > 0:19:39From that time onwards the idea of the forest that held sway in Europe, America and even in Brazil itself,
0:19:39 > 0:19:43was the Amazon as a pristine paradise, empty of people.
0:19:50 > 0:19:57And as the 20th Century progressed, this empty land looked ripe for exploitation.
0:20:08 > 0:20:12In the 1970s, the military government of Brazil
0:20:12 > 0:20:16saw in the vastness of the Amazon an opportunity.
0:20:16 > 0:20:22To expand the country's economy and solve the problem of a burgeoning population of landless peasants.
0:20:25 > 0:20:29Grand road-building projects were slicing through the forest
0:20:29 > 0:20:34to give access for the development of cattle ranches and farms.
0:20:34 > 0:20:41It was a very interesting and probably not so good time for the Amazon in the '70s.
0:20:43 > 0:20:48There were many different programmes going on to populate the Amazon.
0:20:48 > 0:20:52They thought it was a land without people and so they were looking for
0:20:52 > 0:20:57people without land in several parts of Brazil and sending these people there.
0:21:02 > 0:21:05But even as the trees were being felled, experts were questioning
0:21:05 > 0:21:09one of the basic assumptions behind the government's campaign.
0:21:09 > 0:21:12That the green forest meant fertile land.
0:21:15 > 0:21:23New research was revealing the unexpected nature of the Amazonian soils, and an American archaeologist
0:21:23 > 0:21:30called Betty Meggers would use this to redefine the way we think about the Amazon ecosystem.
0:21:33 > 0:21:35The soil was very infertile,
0:21:35 > 0:21:40so you've got to fertilise it all the time, and then the first rain
0:21:40 > 0:21:44washes it out, so it's not a viable situation.
0:21:44 > 0:21:49You've got high temperatures, you've had high rainfall and there for many millions of years,
0:21:49 > 0:21:52so you've had chemical, leaching chemical weathering
0:21:52 > 0:22:00that has long since sort of weathered away and washed away all the valuable minerals and nutrients from the soil.
0:22:00 > 0:22:02And on top of that,
0:22:02 > 0:22:06you don't tend to get the accumulation of leaf litter
0:22:06 > 0:22:10and the organic humus that you find in this part of the world.
0:22:13 > 0:22:17Any organic material that falls onto the forest floor is very rapidly
0:22:17 > 0:22:22decomposed and recycled and put back into the living material again.
0:22:22 > 0:22:26Ends up back in the trees very, very quickly.
0:22:26 > 0:22:34And as the deforestation continued regardless, the scientists were proved right.
0:22:34 > 0:22:42They cut down all the trees and the next crop was smaller, and then pretty soon the soil was exhausted
0:22:42 > 0:22:47and they didn't get anything and everything that's been tried has
0:22:47 > 0:22:54demonstrated the non-feasibility of dense sedentary cultivation and so forth.
0:22:54 > 0:23:00In other words, the forest may look lush, but it is not fertile,
0:23:00 > 0:23:04or as Betty Meggers put it in 1971,
0:23:04 > 0:23:08the Amazon was a Counterfeit Paradise.
0:23:08 > 0:23:14The idea of a counterfeit paradise, the idea that under that appearance
0:23:14 > 0:23:18of abundance of richness of resources lies
0:23:18 > 0:23:24a very fragile, frail difficult environment to be managed by people.
0:23:26 > 0:23:31In Meggers' view the only kind of agriculture the Amazon could support
0:23:31 > 0:23:39was the kind of small scale cultivation, practised by many of today's indigenous population.
0:23:39 > 0:23:46It's called slash and burn agriculture and it's a way of farming sustainably on poor soil.
0:23:46 > 0:23:53A patch of forest is cleared and the crops are grown until the soil is nearly exhausted.
0:23:53 > 0:24:00At the end of three years the fields stop producing so they go cut another one and move around
0:24:00 > 0:24:05and have a territory in which they can
0:24:05 > 0:24:09maintain a population that's sustainable.
0:24:09 > 0:24:15If they get too big a one they end up with people not having enough to eat.
0:24:15 > 0:24:19So you would never establish a big settlement for a long period of time
0:24:19 > 0:24:26in the same place because you didn't have the resources to maintain that group - that was her first argument.
0:24:27 > 0:24:33Betty Meggers subscribed to a mid-twentieth century school of thought
0:24:33 > 0:24:39that related the size and complexity of human societies to their environment.
0:24:39 > 0:24:43Harsh environments would limit the development of culture.
0:24:47 > 0:24:54This theory also said that in the tropics not only could humans not develop as a biological species
0:24:54 > 0:24:57but humans could not develop their highest civilisation.
0:25:00 > 0:25:05As a counterfeit paradise it was thought that the Amazon never had,
0:25:05 > 0:25:13never could and never would sustain big or complex human populations.
0:25:13 > 0:25:18This theory added scientific credibility to the notion of pristine forest,
0:25:18 > 0:25:22at a time when opposition to the deforestation was mounting.
0:25:28 > 0:25:34The destruction of the Amazon became a focus of concern for many different groups and interests.
0:25:34 > 0:25:38Some NGOs collaborated with indigenous tribes
0:25:38 > 0:25:44and other poor forest communities, trying to protect these people and their lands from developers.
0:25:44 > 0:25:48Other NGOs took a more conventional approach to nature conservation,
0:25:48 > 0:25:52including some international wildlife conservationists.
0:25:54 > 0:25:56Many people characterised
0:25:56 > 0:25:59development in the Amazon
0:25:59 > 0:26:03as fundamentally bad, human impacts of any kind.
0:26:03 > 0:26:09The people who were doing biodiversity conservation were like,
0:26:09 > 0:26:11if it flies
0:26:11 > 0:26:16or walks on four legs, that's important,
0:26:16 > 0:26:17people are bad.
0:26:20 > 0:26:26In the '70s the Brazilian government began protecting some of the forest
0:26:26 > 0:26:28through the creation of National Parks.
0:26:30 > 0:26:34They initially followed the American conservation model.
0:26:34 > 0:26:39The old traditional approach to conservation, for National Parks, for
0:26:39 > 0:26:44example, has been to put up a fence around a particular plot of forest
0:26:44 > 0:26:51and to keep people out and under the assumption that anything kind of human land use is detrimental.
0:26:53 > 0:26:58As a result it became illegal for people, both indigenous
0:26:58 > 0:27:02and mixed race forest communities, to live in the new parks.
0:27:02 > 0:27:06Environmentalism can be a new form of imperialism.
0:27:06 > 0:27:10We see that kind of imperialism working at different levels,
0:27:10 > 0:27:15on an international level, but also at a local level here in Brazil.
0:27:15 > 0:27:22It amazes me today that conservation officials,
0:27:22 > 0:27:27they think that it's necessary to exclude
0:27:27 > 0:27:30traditional inhabitants,
0:27:30 > 0:27:38indigenous people or peasants, caboclos or mestizos from conservation units.
0:27:38 > 0:27:42A lot of people, traditional inhabitants, peasants, mixed blood people
0:27:42 > 0:27:45have been living in those conservation units for decades
0:27:45 > 0:27:52or even centuries, and they have been kicked out now because these places are going to become national parks.
0:27:52 > 0:28:00Against a backdrop of environmental concern, the destruction of the forest continued apace.
0:28:00 > 0:28:06Then, in a curious twist, the deforestation brought to light evidence that would
0:28:06 > 0:28:12challenge the beliefs of environmentalists, archaeologists and even the developers.
0:28:22 > 0:28:28In 1986, the Brazilian Geographer Alceu Ranzi was on a flight
0:28:28 > 0:28:33to Acre in the southwest Amazon when he spotted something unusual.
0:28:33 > 0:28:41And he was sitting at the window seat and he saw this huge structure, very large.
0:28:43 > 0:28:48And then he realised that it was not a single site
0:28:48 > 0:28:54that probably there were more and so he rented an aeroplane and he started flying around and
0:28:54 > 0:29:03then he found more and more and more and then he as a geographer, he knew that it was something very special.
0:29:03 > 0:29:07You know that was not natural, that probably was very ancient.
0:29:08 > 0:29:15Where trees had been felled strange shapes emerged from what was thought to be virgin forest.
0:29:18 > 0:29:22These huge earth structures are known as geoglyphs.
0:29:27 > 0:29:31So the geoglyphs are trenches that were excavated in the form of geometric figures.
0:29:31 > 0:29:38So mostly we find circles, rectangles and composite figures.
0:29:42 > 0:29:49And these trenches were cut very deep, they are today about one or two metres but when we
0:29:49 > 0:29:57excavate them we found the ancient depth was three, four or five metres, so that's a lot.
0:29:57 > 0:30:03And also their width - it's about 11, 12 metres.
0:30:08 > 0:30:13As the deforestation continued, the discoveries kept coming,
0:30:13 > 0:30:17and by 1999 Alceu Ranzi had found 30 geoglyphs.
0:30:17 > 0:30:21But this was just the tip of the iceberg.
0:30:21 > 0:30:25One day they were just you know looking at Google Earth
0:30:25 > 0:30:30and somebody saw a geoglyph in a Google Earth.
0:30:32 > 0:30:36It was very special for us, because like in two weeks we have found 100
0:30:36 > 0:30:42and that never has stopped growing the number of sites we can identify.
0:30:46 > 0:30:51They may measure almost the size of two football fields and they show
0:30:51 > 0:30:57incredible geometric precision, often the squares and rectangles
0:30:57 > 0:31:01have an orientation almost perfectly north south
0:31:01 > 0:31:07and this is an uncanny precision because there doesn't seem to be a functional reason for it.
0:31:11 > 0:31:14There's no way you're going to do and go through all the effort of
0:31:14 > 0:31:19doing something very geometrical if you don't have a reason for that.
0:31:19 > 0:31:25I tend to believe that there was a religious reason of some kind,
0:31:25 > 0:31:30something that we will probably never know, but still.
0:31:32 > 0:31:37What we do know is the extraordinary age of the geoglyphs.
0:31:37 > 0:31:43The earliest are 2,000 years old and the latest from about 750 years ago.
0:31:46 > 0:31:50This means that for more than a millennium, people were dramatically
0:31:50 > 0:31:55shaping an area previously thought to be virgin rainforest.
0:31:57 > 0:32:03Today we can find so many sites in Acre, so many geoglyphs
0:32:03 > 0:32:08because there's no vegetation and that's something that makes us wonder
0:32:08 > 0:32:14what is under the vegetation that's still up in many other places in the Amazon.
0:32:17 > 0:32:23Some estimate that what we can see represents only ten per cent of the total.
0:32:23 > 0:32:32If proved right, this apparently uninhabited region could have sustained some 600,000 people.
0:32:34 > 0:32:39However, the identity of these people remains a mystery.
0:32:39 > 0:32:44Besides the geoglyphs, they left practically no traces of themselves.
0:32:44 > 0:32:48We know that for sure that lots of people were
0:32:48 > 0:32:53necessary to build the geoglyphs, but where have they left their remains?
0:32:53 > 0:32:55Where are the burials?
0:32:55 > 0:32:59Where are the houses, where are the ceramics? We just don't find them.
0:33:04 > 0:33:11But thousands of miles away, on the island of Marajo in the mouth of the Amazon River,
0:33:11 > 0:33:16another lost civilisation left a clearer record of their lives.
0:33:22 > 0:33:23This is the Pororoca.
0:33:23 > 0:33:27A tidal surge that twice a year travels in from the sea.
0:33:29 > 0:33:34Its name in the indigenous language translates as the big roar,
0:33:34 > 0:33:39and it can be heard 30 minutes before its arrival.
0:33:39 > 0:33:41It is the longest wave in the world.
0:33:45 > 0:33:52It moves at 35 miles an hour, picking up force as it travels inland.
0:33:52 > 0:33:56By the time it hits the river banks the impact is terrifying.
0:33:56 > 0:34:01It erodes soils, sweeps away trees, animals and houses.
0:34:07 > 0:34:11But that's not all that Marajo puts up with.
0:34:11 > 0:34:14There are months of heavy rains.
0:34:17 > 0:34:22So for more than half of each year, most of the island is submerged.
0:34:22 > 0:34:27The result is a landscape shaped and dominated by water.
0:34:30 > 0:34:33To survive here in the past people built earthen mounds
0:34:33 > 0:34:36which archaeologists have since rediscovered.
0:34:36 > 0:34:40They were built because those are flooded lands.
0:34:40 > 0:34:45So people had to build mounds in order to manage that environment
0:34:45 > 0:34:49and to have high ground to live on top of it.
0:34:56 > 0:34:59But the mounds were more than a safe haven against the floods.
0:34:59 > 0:35:04In 1949, while excavating one of these structures,
0:35:04 > 0:35:08Betty Meggers found something that no-one expected.
0:35:08 > 0:35:15A huge earthenware jar covered with elaborate symbols and harbouring human bones.
0:35:15 > 0:35:22It was a funeral urn, part of a burial ground that turned out to contain six more urns.
0:35:22 > 0:35:29For Meggers, working with a theory that challenging environments limit the development of human culture,
0:35:29 > 0:35:33the elaborate ceramics were a surprise.
0:35:33 > 0:35:38We had seen this beautiful pottery and what we wanted to find out was where did it come from
0:35:38 > 0:35:44and what was the history and that was what we were trying to find out.
0:35:46 > 0:35:52Together with artefacts revealed in further excavations, they showed that a sophisticated
0:35:52 > 0:35:59human society, complete with belief systems, hierarchy and symbols, had overcome the harsh environment
0:35:59 > 0:36:04and flourished in a land thought to be uninhabitable.
0:36:06 > 0:36:08So Marajo was a surprise to them,
0:36:08 > 0:36:13because it had very interesting pottery and very sophisticated
0:36:13 > 0:36:17ways of making that pottery and that didn't fit the model.
0:36:17 > 0:36:24How could a group use complex techniques in a very hostile environment? It didn't fit.
0:36:26 > 0:36:31To Meggers it was clear that these people must have come from elsewhere.
0:36:31 > 0:36:38And for her, the clue to where they came from lay in the polychrome or highly coloured ceramics.
0:36:40 > 0:36:44The people that I worked with have traced the origins back to
0:36:44 > 0:36:48Colombia and so forth where you get the earliest polychrome
0:36:48 > 0:36:56painting, you get a number of features that are found in Marajoara culture
0:36:56 > 0:36:58and burial and all that sort of thing.
0:37:00 > 0:37:04She said those people came from outside,
0:37:04 > 0:37:12got there with this advanced culture and lived there for 200 years and they disappeared.
0:37:12 > 0:37:15According to Meggers, a more sophisticated immigrant
0:37:15 > 0:37:21civilisation moved to Marajo, bringing their culture and ceramics,
0:37:21 > 0:37:25but then foundered and declined in the harsh conditions of the Amazon.
0:37:26 > 0:37:31But a new generation of archaeologists would begin to question this interpretation.
0:37:33 > 0:37:36Later, even people who worked with Meggers have got carbon dates
0:37:36 > 0:37:39for the occupation in the island.
0:37:39 > 0:37:46They found out that the Marajoara culture has lasted for 900 years.
0:37:47 > 0:37:50If you cannot survive in an environment that's not good
0:37:50 > 0:37:55for human populations, how could they not only stay for 900 years there,
0:37:55 > 0:37:58but have those beautiful ceramics
0:37:58 > 0:38:05and produce a culture that's comparable to any other in the world?
0:38:05 > 0:38:09In fact, Denise Schaan's later research found that the people of
0:38:09 > 0:38:15Marajo had been producing ceramics for an even greater period of time,
0:38:15 > 0:38:18as far back as 3,000 years ago.
0:38:18 > 0:38:23And comparing the earlier and later sites, Schaan showed
0:38:23 > 0:38:26that the societies had evolved and not declined.
0:38:26 > 0:38:33What had changed at a certain point in time is that they had started building the mounds and they started
0:38:33 > 0:38:37just decorating these ceramics and producing ceramics
0:38:37 > 0:38:44very distinct in different shapes and doing these funerals and these feasts and things like that.
0:38:44 > 0:38:49Clearly complex societies had survived for millennia on Marajo
0:38:49 > 0:38:57Island but the question of how they sustained themselves in a region ill-suited to agriculture remained.
0:39:00 > 0:39:05Schaan believes she knows the answer to this question and how it relates to the mounds.
0:39:05 > 0:39:13I saw the way that people today still today manage, for example, fish in the island.
0:39:13 > 0:39:18When the rains stop and the waters start to go down
0:39:18 > 0:39:23the fish get trapped in lakes and small streams
0:39:23 > 0:39:29and even temporary lakes and then people go there and just they catch the fish.
0:39:29 > 0:39:35I mean, it's not fishing you just catch and put the fish in the baskets. It's very easy,
0:39:35 > 0:39:41and then I realised that all that was going on very next to the mounds
0:39:41 > 0:39:45and in every mound you could find these kind of things.
0:39:45 > 0:39:52So it became very clear for me that the mounds were linked to, related to the fish ponds.
0:39:54 > 0:39:58The ancient inhabitants of Marajo had used ponds on the edge of their
0:39:58 > 0:40:05mounds to intensify fishing and secure a reliable source of protein for most of the year.
0:40:10 > 0:40:13It looked like these ancient communities were not passive
0:40:13 > 0:40:17survivors at the mercy of their Amazon environment,
0:40:17 > 0:40:21but were deliberately reshaping the land and managing the wildlife
0:40:21 > 0:40:24in ways that allowed them to develop complex cultures.
0:40:26 > 0:40:28This was a radical new idea that challenged conventional
0:40:28 > 0:40:33beliefs about the limitations of human development in the Amazon.
0:40:37 > 0:40:43Beliefs that would be further shaken by another outstanding discovery in the 1980s.
0:40:45 > 0:40:50Not artefacts or earthworks, but the earth itself.
0:40:54 > 0:41:01A soil of almost miraculous fertility, known as terra preta or dark earth.
0:41:06 > 0:41:11The discovery of terra preta, black earth soils in Amazonia, is a truly amazing discovery,
0:41:11 > 0:41:16because Amazonia has always been assumed to be very infertile and not to be conducive
0:41:16 > 0:41:20to intensive agriculture.
0:41:21 > 0:41:24The soil is almost oily, very dark.
0:41:24 > 0:41:26It's almost like working in a coal mine.
0:41:28 > 0:41:34And these soils are extremely fertile, and are far more fertile than the surrounding soils.
0:41:35 > 0:41:39In fact, the crop yields produced on dark earths are so good,
0:41:39 > 0:41:45that it is now widely regarded as the most fertile soil in the world.
0:41:47 > 0:41:50Well, the other thing is that these soils are very stable, and
0:41:50 > 0:41:54that's what's so fascinating about the terra preta as well, because
0:41:54 > 0:41:57one problem with contemporary agriculture in the tropics is that
0:41:57 > 0:41:59one has to put a lot of fertilisers,
0:41:59 > 0:42:05and very fast, after two or three years, those fertilisers are washed away by the rain.
0:42:05 > 0:42:09Terra preta soils they don't lose their nutrients.
0:42:09 > 0:42:12They are very stable for over hundreds of years.
0:42:14 > 0:42:21And wherever terra preta is found, there is evidence of human occupation, going back centuries,
0:42:21 > 0:42:28often in the form of broken ceramics which archaeologists call pot shards.
0:42:28 > 0:42:32The amount of pot shards that one sees on the surface,
0:42:32 > 0:42:36and also buried on these sites is really, it's huge.
0:42:36 > 0:42:41We find evidence of houses, of fences, of structures,
0:42:41 > 0:42:44platform mounds for the building of the houses.
0:42:44 > 0:42:47We have evidence of food processing on those places as well.
0:42:47 > 0:42:50Sometimes we dug cemeteries, people are being buried there.
0:42:50 > 0:42:55So to me they represent the ancient settlements of the people who lived in the Amazon in the past.
0:42:58 > 0:43:01The most remarkable thing about this miracle soil
0:43:01 > 0:43:07is that ancient people didn't just use the terra preta, they created it.
0:43:09 > 0:43:12And we know that because in the southern Amazon,
0:43:12 > 0:43:17people like the Kuikuro tribe are still creating dark earth today.
0:43:48 > 0:43:52So what had seemed impossible had already been done.
0:43:52 > 0:43:56Indigenous peoples had transformed the one thing that everyone thought
0:43:56 > 0:44:01would have prevented the development of large civilisations in the Amazon.
0:44:05 > 0:44:09And there was yet another striking revelation to come from the Dark Earths.
0:44:13 > 0:44:19It was to do with accounts left by Orellana in his search for the legendary Cities of Gold.
0:44:21 > 0:44:25The very interesting thing is that his description of these cities
0:44:25 > 0:44:28stretching over many miles down the main Amazon river,
0:44:30 > 0:44:36these cities coincide perfectly with the main distribution of terra preta, black earth soils.
0:44:39 > 0:44:45We find terra preta sites in places where he travelled and we find that his description of the pottery,
0:44:45 > 0:44:49which he compares with the finest pottery made in Malaga,
0:44:49 > 0:44:54really matches the colour and the patterns of the pottery that we find.
0:44:58 > 0:45:05Also he talks about palisades, fences around villages and we've dug structures like that.
0:45:05 > 0:45:09So I think it's a very good, I think it's very close to reality. He wasn't making that up.
0:45:14 > 0:45:18It was becoming clear that the so-called virgin rainforest
0:45:18 > 0:45:22had in fact once been home to a substantial population.
0:45:25 > 0:45:30And we know through the archaeology that the areas adjacent to the floodplain were full of people.
0:45:30 > 0:45:35We have sites from the headwaters of the Amazon to the mouth of the Amazon.
0:45:35 > 0:45:40So most people today work with the hypothesis that there were like around 5.5 million people
0:45:40 > 0:45:43in the Amazon by the time of the arrival of the Europeans.
0:45:46 > 0:45:53450 years after it was written, Orellana's account was finally vindicated.
0:45:53 > 0:46:00Far from being a fantastical traveller's tale, it is now widely accepted as historical record.
0:46:01 > 0:46:06Most of Orellana's observations were made close to the Amazon river,
0:46:06 > 0:46:14but archaeologists are now looking further afield for clues to the rainforest's pre-Columbian past.
0:46:14 > 0:46:20In the 1990s, at the heart of the largest indigenous reserve in Amazon,
0:46:20 > 0:46:23Michael Heckenberger began to piece together a picture
0:46:23 > 0:46:28of the communities that thrived at the time of Orellana's voyage.
0:46:34 > 0:46:38What I was really interested in looking at was their deep history.
0:46:38 > 0:46:40I wanted to work with them on their oral history and
0:46:40 > 0:46:47particularly the archaeology of previous communities extending back hopefully into pre-Colombian time.
0:46:49 > 0:46:53And within weeks of arriving in a Kuikuro village, the Kuikuro chief
0:46:53 > 0:46:55showed me an ancient archaeological site,
0:46:55 > 0:47:00which we now know dates to just about the time Europeans first arrived in the Americas
0:47:00 > 0:47:04and was over ten times the size of the Kuikuro village.
0:47:04 > 0:47:11Since then, Heckenberger has collaborated with the Kuikuro on a series of archaeological digs
0:47:11 > 0:47:15to find out much more about these ancient settlements.
0:47:18 > 0:47:22And it was elaborated with earthen structures including ditches
0:47:22 > 0:47:26and palisade walls, curbed roads, a large curbed plaza
0:47:26 > 0:47:31and an occupation area that extends over 50 hectares.
0:47:33 > 0:47:38Over the past couple of decades we've been able to map dozens of sites, many of them that large.
0:47:39 > 0:47:45So in the area where I went to live in 1993 with the Kuikuro who were living in one village.
0:47:45 > 0:47:51In 1500, there was two dozen villages, many of which were five or ten times as large.
0:47:54 > 0:48:01When the ancient earth structures were mapped out, a pattern began to emerge.
0:48:01 > 0:48:04The Xinguanos are well known for living around a large circular
0:48:04 > 0:48:09plaza, a ring of houses which has a clubhouse in the middle.
0:48:09 > 0:48:14That same plaza organisation was the central feature of ancient communities.
0:48:14 > 0:48:17They were ten times larger, there was many more people, but that
0:48:17 > 0:48:22same kind of circular plaza village orientated the ancient communities.
0:48:23 > 0:48:28And when Heckenberger and his team found the remains of ancient roads,
0:48:28 > 0:48:32it became clear that these sites indicated something more
0:48:32 > 0:48:36than the isolated settlements of today's Amazon.
0:48:37 > 0:48:41We mapped archaeological roads with GPS.
0:48:41 > 0:48:45Based on that mapping, what we've done is extrapolated
0:48:45 > 0:48:48the directions of those roads across the landscape
0:48:48 > 0:48:53and to our surprise they actually link up with other archaeological sites
0:48:53 > 0:48:56and so the entire region was organised
0:48:56 > 0:49:02almost like a lattice work of roads, north to south and east to west.
0:49:02 > 0:49:05Sounds very urban.
0:49:06 > 0:49:10Heckenberger was revealing a highly-planned pre-Columbian
0:49:10 > 0:49:16settlement pattern unlike anything that had existed in the Old World.
0:49:16 > 0:49:20They were integrated in these multi-centric clusters.
0:49:20 > 0:49:23They always a single central community.
0:49:23 > 0:49:27They had two major satellites, one to the south, one to the north,
0:49:27 > 0:49:30two other major satellites to the east and west.
0:49:30 > 0:49:33And those five communities formed a core area and it's this
0:49:33 > 0:49:38multi-centric form of urbanism that's really quite novel.
0:49:38 > 0:49:43We haven't seen anything similar to that anywhere else on the planet.
0:49:43 > 0:49:46It's an alternative form of urbanism.
0:49:46 > 0:49:50But in terms of integration, regional design and planning,
0:49:50 > 0:49:55in many respects they were more complex than the Ancient Grecian polis
0:49:55 > 0:49:58or the medieval towns and villages.
0:50:01 > 0:50:07The next stage was to get an idea of the extent of these settlements across the region.
0:50:07 > 0:50:10In doing this, the researchers capitalised
0:50:10 > 0:50:17on the fact that the Kuikuro villages are rich in dark earths, terra preta.
0:50:17 > 0:50:22In the Xingu what we've seen is that the indigenous population
0:50:22 > 0:50:26in settlements, has changed the actual properties of the soil
0:50:26 > 0:50:29and that these minute changes in the soil chemistry
0:50:29 > 0:50:33actually cause the vegetation to grow differently.
0:50:34 > 0:50:39And that, in turn, affects the look of the forest.
0:50:39 > 0:50:44It's not a difference that can be seen with the naked eye
0:50:44 > 0:50:48but aerial and satellite imagery can reveal this human footprint.
0:50:50 > 0:50:55When the researchers expanded his view to take in the whole Xingu Basin,
0:50:55 > 0:51:00the extent of the potential human impact on the forest was revealed.
0:51:02 > 0:51:05The black dots represent known archaeology site locations
0:51:05 > 0:51:08and locations of current human habitation.
0:51:08 > 0:51:16The red dots represent areas that have vegetative signatures that match those of known archaeological
0:51:16 > 0:51:24sites and thus have a high probability of being archaeological site locations themselves.
0:51:24 > 0:51:30Not only were the human settlements much more widespread than previously imagined,
0:51:30 > 0:51:35they also had a significant impact on the wildlife of the rainforest.
0:51:35 > 0:51:41The plants and animals that colonised the landscape are slightly different in the road areas,
0:51:41 > 0:51:49in the settlement areas, in the agricultural areas, and so, to some degree, the forest itself,
0:51:49 > 0:51:56as an artefact of past human usage, preserves that lattice-like structure
0:51:56 > 0:51:59that was part and parcel of the ancient built environment.
0:52:02 > 0:52:07This enduring human effect on the forest vegetation is one more piece
0:52:07 > 0:52:12of evidence showing that large parts of the Amazon are anthropogenic.
0:52:17 > 0:52:22So how much of this apparently virgin forest has actually been shaped by man?
0:52:25 > 0:52:31When sites like the settlements of Xingu are taken together with the land around the geoglyphs,
0:52:31 > 0:52:34the mounds of Marajo,
0:52:34 > 0:52:39the dark earth sites and many other areas of study,
0:52:39 > 0:52:41a startling picture emerges.
0:52:45 > 0:52:51The total area of anthropogenic forest is almost twice the size of Spain.
0:52:51 > 0:52:55And it's growing all the time with new archaeological discoveries.
0:53:00 > 0:53:07The idea of a vast, unbroken, wholly pristine wilderness is now no longer credible,
0:53:07 > 0:53:14and, for many, the terms of the debate over the true nature of the Amazon have been entirely changed.
0:53:17 > 0:53:21When people think about pristine-ness they're thinking about
0:53:21 > 0:53:26something that comes from the past, a very removed, very ancient past,
0:53:26 > 0:53:29and it should be preserved for the future, but there's no such thing,
0:53:29 > 0:53:33because in the Amazon what we see is that
0:53:33 > 0:53:38at least for 11,000 years there's been people living there
0:53:38 > 0:53:40and they've been building this relationship with nature,
0:53:40 > 0:53:45so what we have to preserve in the Amazon is the outcome, the dynamic
0:53:45 > 0:53:49relationship between the people and nature.
0:53:49 > 0:53:51Without people there's no such relationship.
0:53:51 > 0:53:56We're preserving something else which is not natural any more.
0:53:56 > 0:54:02There is a strong political debate that has to be faced in the Amazon today.
0:54:02 > 0:54:09There's a true paradigm shift going on in terms of how the Amazon rainforest and its origins are seen.
0:54:09 > 0:54:13We can't understand the diversity without taking into account the human factors of the past.
0:54:15 > 0:54:19The idea of a natural order that includes people
0:54:19 > 0:54:22is one that challenges the way we all think about wild nature.
0:54:24 > 0:54:27And it challenges traditional approaches to conservation
0:54:27 > 0:54:31which tried to separate humans from the natural world.
0:54:31 > 0:54:34And I don't see any contradiction...
0:54:34 > 0:54:39Actually I see a complementarity between preservation of nature
0:54:39 > 0:54:44and the fact that people can live in this conservation unit.
0:54:44 > 0:54:48What I feel is that you need to facilitate people staying
0:54:48 > 0:54:52on their land and buffer them from any invasion of people
0:54:52 > 0:54:58who may have more technology, more power, more money to bribe people
0:54:58 > 0:55:03than they do, and basically help them to continue there as best they can.
0:55:03 > 0:55:06That's the kind of reserve I think will be favourable to the future of tropical forests.
0:55:08 > 0:55:12But some environmentalists fear that by showing that the forest has been
0:55:12 > 0:55:16heavily manipulated by humans in the past,
0:55:16 > 0:55:18archaeologists could be giving the green light to modern
0:55:18 > 0:55:23developers to do the same, but on a much larger scale.
0:55:25 > 0:55:33Does this mean that the area is ripe for clear cutting and large scale mechanised economic development?
0:55:33 > 0:55:35Well, no, that is a completely different thing.
0:55:36 > 0:55:43It's quite clear that cutting the forest completely down and replacing it with a field of soya beans
0:55:43 > 0:55:47is the kind of use that is not consistent with the survival of that habitat.
0:55:49 > 0:55:54In fact, what the archaeologists are proposing is a middle way.
0:55:54 > 0:55:59One that draws on lessons from the past, from the terra preta,
0:55:59 > 0:56:02that would allow indigenous peoples and other forest communities to grow
0:56:02 > 0:56:07and flourish in sustainable ways in the future.
0:56:07 > 0:56:13You can have societies that are very complex, very traditional,
0:56:13 > 0:56:17very large demographically speaking, without necessarily some
0:56:17 > 0:56:23of the things we always thought would be really important like intensive agriculture.
0:56:23 > 0:56:25They had all other ways to produce food.
0:56:27 > 0:56:34If pre-Columbian Amazonians have been able to manage the environment without completely destroying it
0:56:34 > 0:56:39and maybe increasing the biodiversity of the environment,
0:56:39 > 0:56:43these are the lessons that I think we should take on.
0:56:46 > 0:56:53Today the Amazon population is made up of 20 million people from all races and backgrounds.
0:56:55 > 0:57:02Amongst them are 400 indigenous groups, struggling to have their voices heard.
0:57:02 > 0:57:08Meanwhile, economic pressures and big businesses push for greater exploitation of the area
0:57:08 > 0:57:12and environmental groups give dire warnings of the consequences.
0:57:15 > 0:57:21The concept of a man-made forest has added a new twist to the debate.
0:57:21 > 0:57:24But whatever the future course of the argument,
0:57:24 > 0:57:27one thing now seems clear.
0:57:27 > 0:57:31The idea of the wholly virgin rainforest has had its day.
0:57:34 > 0:57:40The Amazon is the least known world area in terms of its archaeology.
0:57:40 > 0:57:42How much of it is anthropogenic?
0:57:42 > 0:57:44We don't know.
0:57:44 > 0:57:49But we do know enough to say that you can no longer go into
0:57:49 > 0:57:56any part of the Amazon and assume that what you're walking into is a pristine tropical forest.
0:57:56 > 0:58:00You might be surprised that just under that root
0:58:00 > 0:58:02is an Amerindian pot shard.
0:58:27 > 0:58:30Subtitles by Red Bee Media Ltd