0:00:02 > 0:00:04Let me tell you a story about a man called Dante Autullo.
0:00:04 > 0:00:06He lives in Illinois, he's 34 years old,
0:00:06 > 0:00:10and a couple of years ago, he was doing some DIY around the house with a nail gun, as you do,
0:00:10 > 0:00:12he fired a nail into his own brain.
0:00:12 > 0:00:15But he never realised, because the brain has no pain receptors.
0:00:15 > 0:00:19He had a nosebleed and the following day he felt a bit nauseous,
0:00:19 > 0:00:22and his girlfriend said, "You should get that checked out."
0:00:22 > 0:00:25So he went to a doctor and they showed him the X-ray, and he simply didn't believe them.
0:00:25 > 0:00:30We know this because he found time to post the X-rays to Facebook
0:00:30 > 0:00:32in the ambulance on the way to the hospital.
0:00:32 > 0:00:35Ah, the brain! The most mysterious object in the universe,
0:00:35 > 0:00:39but it can still make you behave like a bit of an idiot.
0:00:39 > 0:00:42I'm Dara O'Briain, welcome to Science Club.
0:01:01 > 0:01:03APPLAUSE
0:01:05 > 0:01:08So, welcome to our show, which takes one major topic each week
0:01:08 > 0:01:11and looks at it from every angle to see what we can learn.
0:01:11 > 0:01:14As ever, we have our curious audience and illustrious guests -
0:01:14 > 0:01:18this week, neuroscientist and developmental psychologist Uta Frith. Welcome.
0:01:18 > 0:01:22Our regular reporters, Alok Jha, Helen Czerski and Tali Sharot.
0:01:22 > 0:01:25- Our very special guest - Jessica Hynes. Jessica, how are you? - Very well.- Good stuff.
0:01:25 > 0:01:30And Mark Miodownik, as ever, our materials scientist, ready to do some messing around over here.
0:01:30 > 0:01:33Now, on the show tonight, we're looking at the human brain,
0:01:33 > 0:01:35peering into the mass of grey and white matter
0:01:35 > 0:01:37to find out the latest thinking about...thinking.
0:01:37 > 0:01:40Through the media of filmed reports and experiments,
0:01:40 > 0:01:45we'll endeavour to understand where we're at with this most complex but fundamental organ.
0:01:47 > 0:01:52Dr Helen Czerski travels to the US to discover amazing, cutting-edge brain research.
0:01:52 > 0:01:58- And so, do you feel that you're one step closer to being able to mind-read?- Yes.
0:01:58 > 0:02:01Reporter Alok Jha finds out about smart drugs
0:02:01 > 0:02:06which seem to maximise our cleverness, and asks whether we should all be taking them.
0:02:06 > 0:02:08I'm really tempted to try one.
0:02:08 > 0:02:12And 2012 actor Jessica Hynes undergoes memory testing
0:02:12 > 0:02:15and literally sees what's going on in her head.
0:02:15 > 0:02:18I'm looking forward to having a picture of my brain!
0:02:18 > 0:02:22And later, Prof Mark Miodownik will be putting a brain in a blender.
0:02:22 > 0:02:24All in the name of science, of course.
0:02:24 > 0:02:27If you want to get involved with the show or follow us on Twitter,
0:02:27 > 0:02:30the details are on your screen.
0:02:32 > 0:02:34Very good, OK.
0:02:34 > 0:02:37But first, let's meet our science guru,
0:02:37 > 0:02:42neuroscientist and developmental psychologist, a Fellow of the Royal Society,
0:02:42 > 0:02:45Emeritus Professor of Cognitive Psychology at UCL,
0:02:45 > 0:02:48please welcome Uta Frith!
0:02:48 > 0:02:50CHEERING AND APPLAUSE
0:02:52 > 0:02:56- How are you?- Hello. - Nice to have you here. Welcome.
0:03:00 > 0:03:03Uta, over the course of your long and distinguished career,
0:03:03 > 0:03:07you've changed the direction of the stuff that you've been doing
0:03:07 > 0:03:10because what we know about the brain has changed,
0:03:10 > 0:03:13and the technology with which we learn about the brain has changed.
0:03:13 > 0:03:16- almost unrecognisably, since you started.- You're absolutely right.
0:03:16 > 0:03:19When I started being interested in psychology,
0:03:19 > 0:03:22and also in how the brain creates the mind,
0:03:22 > 0:03:26all we had at the time was really looking at
0:03:26 > 0:03:28people who had some kind of brain damage.
0:03:28 > 0:03:32Eventually, sort of from the 1990s,
0:03:32 > 0:03:38we were able to see the living, thinking, feeling brain.
0:03:38 > 0:03:42- So it all came about because of the invention of MRI scans?- Absolutely.
0:03:42 > 0:03:46- A fabulous invention.- So, the amount of information you had, because...
0:03:46 > 0:03:49Listen, I've seen these textbooks about Phineas Gage,
0:03:49 > 0:03:53the man who fell onto a spike and it went through his brain,
0:03:53 > 0:03:57was the proof that personality is contained in the brain.
0:03:57 > 0:04:00That was important information that we had.
0:04:00 > 0:04:04But it was abnormal situations like that were how we knew what happened in the brain.
0:04:04 > 0:04:10Exactly. And we are waiting for more technological breakthroughs so that we can see even better.
0:04:10 > 0:04:15More exact in what we see. OK, we're going to talk about many of the topics it raised here,
0:04:15 > 0:04:17but it's worth taking that historical overview.
0:04:17 > 0:04:20For many years, finding out about the brain just involved looking at,
0:04:20 > 0:04:23measuring it, trying to make assumptions on that basis,
0:04:23 > 0:04:28but since the advent of MRI scanners, we started to understand its innermost secrets.
0:04:28 > 0:04:30This is what we used to think.
0:04:35 > 0:04:38A long time ago, when the Greeks had money and dressed in sheets,
0:04:38 > 0:04:42it was thought that thinking came from a kind of internal self,
0:04:42 > 0:04:46what the Romans later called the homunculus, the little man.
0:04:46 > 0:04:50No-one suspected that thinking happened in the brain.
0:04:50 > 0:04:52It was just so dull.
0:04:52 > 0:04:56Instead, it was the more exciting internal organs, like the heart,
0:04:56 > 0:04:59the liver and the spleen that were marked out
0:04:59 > 0:05:03as the essential parts of thought, reason and emotion.
0:05:03 > 0:05:06Complete nonsense, of course, but progress was slow,
0:05:06 > 0:05:10because for a long time, dissection was banned by the Church.
0:05:10 > 0:05:13Eventually, however, it was noticed that the eyes are connected to
0:05:13 > 0:05:17the dull, wobbly parts inside our heads, and that, in turn,
0:05:17 > 0:05:19it was connected to the rest of the body
0:05:19 > 0:05:23by a stringy network of wiry structures - the nervous system.
0:05:23 > 0:05:25By the 18th century,
0:05:25 > 0:05:27an Italian called Luigi Galvani
0:05:27 > 0:05:30had discovered that the wiry bits carried electricity,
0:05:30 > 0:05:32which operated muscles.
0:05:32 > 0:05:37This he endlessly demonstrated by attaching frogs' legs to a battery.
0:05:37 > 0:05:40It was now clear that the brain actually has an important job to do,
0:05:40 > 0:05:44controlling the body with electricity.
0:05:44 > 0:05:48Gradually, physicians started paying more attention to the brain.
0:05:48 > 0:05:51They noticed that injuries to specific parts of it
0:05:51 > 0:05:53would affect specific abilities.
0:05:53 > 0:05:58Injuries changed the ability to smell, hear or speak.
0:05:58 > 0:06:02Accidents revealed a lot about how the brain worked,
0:06:02 > 0:06:05but well-meaning surgeons showed even more.
0:06:06 > 0:06:10A severely epileptic American was treated by such a surgeon,
0:06:10 > 0:06:14who scooped out the part of his brain called the hippocampus.
0:06:14 > 0:06:15The fits stopped,
0:06:15 > 0:06:19but so did patient's ability to form new memories.
0:06:19 > 0:06:22The brain, it turned out, is responsible for memory.
0:06:23 > 0:06:27All of a sudden, scientists were all over the brain, probing it,
0:06:27 > 0:06:30recording electrical activity.
0:06:30 > 0:06:33One of them, Wilder Penfield, made a map of the brain
0:06:33 > 0:06:36by poking about in the brains of conscious patients.
0:06:36 > 0:06:39He produced the sensory homunculus,
0:06:39 > 0:06:43an image of how the brain senses the body. It was also discovered that our brain
0:06:43 > 0:06:46is responsible for us being conscious, or unconscious,
0:06:46 > 0:06:50and that it's responsible for us being aware of being conscious,
0:06:50 > 0:06:55our consciousness. It was also found that the way the brain works
0:06:55 > 0:06:56can be altered using drugs,
0:06:56 > 0:07:00and that there's another part of our brain that's running the show -
0:07:00 > 0:07:01our subconscious -
0:07:01 > 0:07:06and that means that our brain knows what we're going to do before we do.
0:07:06 > 0:07:08It's almost as though
0:07:08 > 0:07:11we're being controlled by another version of ourselves.
0:07:12 > 0:07:15Traditionally, the brain is compared to
0:07:15 > 0:07:18the most impressive technology available.
0:07:18 > 0:07:22In the past, it would have been a kind of complicated steam engine,
0:07:22 > 0:07:25an electronic telephone exchange, and a microprocessor.
0:07:25 > 0:07:29Today, the brain is presented as being a bit like the internet.
0:07:29 > 0:07:31Tomorrow, who knows?
0:07:31 > 0:07:35The fact is, no-one actually knows exactly how the brain works,
0:07:35 > 0:07:38but at least we now know where to look.
0:07:43 > 0:07:48So, in many ways, we've just stepped onto the moon,
0:07:48 > 0:07:50we've just started that journey, essentially,
0:07:50 > 0:07:53when it comes to finding out what's happening in the brain.
0:07:53 > 0:07:57Explain to me the way it's different from other organs. I'm intrigued by this.
0:07:57 > 0:07:59The lungs, for example,
0:07:59 > 0:08:03it's like a series of corridors that lead to smaller and smaller corridors,
0:08:03 > 0:08:05that lead to rooms that perform a discrete job.
0:08:05 > 0:08:07The heart has its valves.
0:08:07 > 0:08:11The brain seems more like a continuum, like a large hall.
0:08:11 > 0:08:13- Like an orchestra.- Is that how it is?
0:08:13 > 0:08:18And all of these parts of the brain can adopt functions
0:08:18 > 0:08:20- from other parts of the brain? - To some extent.
0:08:20 > 0:08:24I think we don't know quite the limits of how they could do absolutely everything.
0:08:24 > 0:08:28I think there are some that are very much more specialised than others.
0:08:28 > 0:08:33The main job of the brain is, really, to keep us upright,
0:08:33 > 0:08:35keep us from falling over,
0:08:35 > 0:08:39maintain our breathing,
0:08:39 > 0:08:42all sorts of things that we are not at all aware of,
0:08:42 > 0:08:45but they are very heavy-duty tasks, jobs,
0:08:45 > 0:08:48that you need a brain for.
0:08:48 > 0:08:52- In fact, perhaps we should look at the brain.- We have brains here.
0:08:52 > 0:08:56- It is so tempting.- I love the way we have essentially put it on a cake stand.
0:08:56 > 0:08:59I know! It is absolutely amazing.
0:08:59 > 0:09:04I really love holding it, because it is the weight of a...
0:09:04 > 0:09:07That, by the way, is not, I presume, a brain.
0:09:07 > 0:09:10That's a new type of surgical training device.
0:09:10 > 0:09:15Yes, and it feels nice and cool and sort of jellylike,
0:09:15 > 0:09:18and that's always how I imagine the brain to be,
0:09:18 > 0:09:20except, it is nearly always liquid when you really see it,
0:09:20 > 0:09:24and you have to do something to it to make it fixated.
0:09:24 > 0:09:29- So the grey mass that we see is something that we have treated? - Yes, it has to be treated,
0:09:29 > 0:09:32otherwise it will just sort of liquefy very soon.
0:09:32 > 0:09:36But it's a really, really beautiful structure. It's really amazing.
0:09:36 > 0:09:39This is, of course, underneath here, is the cerebellum,
0:09:39 > 0:09:44which is often hidden from view,
0:09:44 > 0:09:47and yet, it's probably a structure of the brain
0:09:47 > 0:09:52that's just...active and used in almost everything we do.
0:09:52 > 0:09:54Absolutely everything.
0:09:54 > 0:09:57It used to be thought it was especially to do with movement,
0:09:57 > 0:09:59movement control, but, in fact,
0:09:59 > 0:10:01it turns out to be kind of the brain's computer.
0:10:01 > 0:10:05The cerebellum is very, very important, and we share this cerebellum.
0:10:05 > 0:10:07It's the same structure in other animals.
0:10:07 > 0:10:12Now, we're going to keep coming back to that for reference.
0:10:12 > 0:10:15Yeah, you're right. It is very pleasant.
0:10:15 > 0:10:18I'm getting the calming effect of touching it.
0:10:18 > 0:10:22We were saying about how the brain has evolved to do with the environment that we are in,
0:10:22 > 0:10:25and at different stages, we have, to a certain extent,
0:10:25 > 0:10:29passed on duties to technology that we previously had the brain doing.
0:10:29 > 0:10:33We invented writing and printing, and that stops us having to memorise tracts...
0:10:33 > 0:10:38That's a perfect example of incredible niche construction,
0:10:38 > 0:10:41of this sort of cleverness...
0:10:41 > 0:10:45- of the brain, that we can outsource...- We can outsource certain parts of it.
0:10:45 > 0:10:49- The obvious example now is mobile telephones, smart computers.- Yes.
0:10:49 > 0:10:53To a certain extent, we've freed up other skills because of this.
0:10:53 > 0:10:57The example that someone has given us, 20 years ago,
0:10:57 > 0:11:00we would all have known the telephone number of our partner's workplace...
0:11:00 > 0:11:05- Now we just... One click. - We know it's kept for us...
0:11:05 > 0:11:07It's all rubbish that we don't need to bother...
0:11:07 > 0:11:12- So we basically passed a job on to technology at different stages.- Yes.
0:11:12 > 0:11:1519 million of us own these smartphones, by the way,
0:11:15 > 0:11:17but how many of us actually know how they work?
0:11:17 > 0:11:19We'll be back to this fabulous beauty in a second.
0:11:19 > 0:11:21LAUGHTER
0:11:21 > 0:11:24Just in terms of the way we pass these things on,
0:11:24 > 0:11:27Mark Miodownik has been taking a smartphone apart.
0:11:29 > 0:11:34The invention of the telephone changed the way we're connected to each other,
0:11:34 > 0:11:37but it was a physical connection, and so engineers dreamed
0:11:37 > 0:11:39of severing that connection,
0:11:39 > 0:11:43of creating a phone you could use anywhere, any place,
0:11:43 > 0:11:47and the realisation of that dream was this, the mobile phone.
0:11:47 > 0:11:50Since it came on the scene some 30 years ago,
0:11:50 > 0:11:52it's transformed the way we communicate.
0:11:52 > 0:11:55But now it's become so much more
0:11:55 > 0:11:58than merely a way to connect to each other.
0:11:58 > 0:12:00It's changed the way we entertain ourselves,
0:12:00 > 0:12:04the way we read and write, and even how we get up in the morning,
0:12:04 > 0:12:07and all in something the size of a cassette tape.
0:12:08 > 0:12:13And now there's evidence that it's even affecting the way we use our brains.
0:12:13 > 0:12:17The smartphone - you're very likely to have one of these in your pocket.
0:12:17 > 0:12:19You may even be watching this on it.
0:12:19 > 0:12:22But how does something so small do so much?
0:12:24 > 0:12:28Smartphones are masters of miniaturisation,
0:12:28 > 0:12:31apart from the battery, which still takes up most of the room.
0:12:31 > 0:12:35But packed around it are microphones, speakers, a processor,
0:12:35 > 0:12:37a SIM card, and let's not forget the antenna,
0:12:37 > 0:12:39which makes it all mobile.
0:12:39 > 0:12:43Of course none of this would matter if you couldn't tell when your phone rings,
0:12:43 > 0:12:46and it does that using the main speaker,
0:12:46 > 0:12:50or by this nifty little gadget. Let me show you.
0:12:50 > 0:12:52LOUD BUZZING
0:12:54 > 0:12:57Of course, that means you can have your phone on silent.
0:12:57 > 0:12:59Because they're so good at connecting us,
0:12:59 > 0:13:01smartphones are well on their way to becoming
0:13:01 > 0:13:04the fastest-spreading technology in human history.
0:13:04 > 0:13:09But, of course, they have one extra thing that makes them truly smart - a logic board.
0:13:09 > 0:13:12The heart and soul of the phone.
0:13:12 > 0:13:15Because there's a processor to control the digital signals,
0:13:15 > 0:13:18that effectively turns the mobile phone into a mini computer,
0:13:18 > 0:13:21and once you have a mini computer in your hand, well,
0:13:21 > 0:13:23all sorts of things can become possible.
0:13:23 > 0:13:26It becomes a music player, a video player and, crucially,
0:13:26 > 0:13:28a portal to the internet.
0:13:28 > 0:13:32This constant access to information means we're relying less and less on our brains,
0:13:32 > 0:13:35and it appears that we're actually outsourcing our memory.
0:13:35 > 0:13:38And then all you need is some way to control it.
0:13:38 > 0:13:43There's no doubt that the defining feature of the smartphone is the screen.
0:13:43 > 0:13:47There's an awful lot packed into just a few millimetres -
0:13:47 > 0:13:49light-emitting diodes, transparent electrodes
0:13:49 > 0:13:54and liquid crystals that rearrange themselves to control the light -
0:13:54 > 0:13:58but the thing that never fails to amaze me is how it responds to your finger.
0:13:58 > 0:14:01The touch screen works by monitoring the electric field on its surface,
0:14:01 > 0:14:05and this is disrupted by an electrical conductor,
0:14:05 > 0:14:08but not ANY electric electrical conductor will work.
0:14:08 > 0:14:13It's trained to recognise the characteristic signature of a human finger.
0:14:13 > 0:14:17Error-correcting algorithms ignore anything with a different electrical signal.
0:14:17 > 0:14:22But it's the addition of the camera that really brings the screen to life.
0:14:22 > 0:14:25Of course, this is not just for taking photos.
0:14:25 > 0:14:29It's one of a growing number of sensors that mobile phones are requiring.
0:14:32 > 0:14:37As you can see, the phone knows which way is up. That means it knows which way gravity is.
0:14:37 > 0:14:39It also knows how fast it's turning.
0:14:39 > 0:14:43And that's really quite remarkable, and it's down to two sensors -
0:14:43 > 0:14:47a gyroscope and an accelerometer.
0:14:47 > 0:14:50They may look just like blobs of plastic,
0:14:50 > 0:14:56but inside, they're microelectronic machines with moving parts smaller than the hair on a flea.
0:14:56 > 0:14:59These intricate components vibrate and move,
0:14:59 > 0:15:03and so can sense motion and the force of gravity,
0:15:03 > 0:15:06making the phone, in a sense, aware of itself.
0:15:08 > 0:15:12This is mechanical engineering on a phenomenally small scale.
0:15:12 > 0:15:16Mobile phones have embedded themselves into every aspect of our lives.
0:15:16 > 0:15:20They wake us up in the morning, they tell us where we need to go and how to get there.
0:15:20 > 0:15:22They allow us to communicate globally.
0:15:22 > 0:15:25They become an intimate expression of who we are.
0:15:25 > 0:15:27PHONE RINGS
0:15:29 > 0:15:30Yeah, hey! How's it going?
0:15:36 > 0:15:42Tell me, firstly, Mark, I think you've voided your warranty
0:15:42 > 0:15:45by opening it up. Don't go back to the shop with that one.
0:15:45 > 0:15:48We pass on certain duties, certain memory tasks, to it.
0:15:48 > 0:15:51Do we fill the space in our brains with something else, then?
0:15:51 > 0:15:54I think the brain is very busy all the time.
0:15:54 > 0:15:58I don't think we even notice that we don't have to remember these numbers any more.
0:15:58 > 0:16:01But we have to remember that there have been technological innovations
0:16:01 > 0:16:04all the time, and every time, for example,
0:16:04 > 0:16:09when printing came in, there was a huge worry about what that might do to people,
0:16:09 > 0:16:12and what, in fact, print might do to memory.
0:16:12 > 0:16:15It would atrophy, that was the prediction.
0:16:15 > 0:16:19And you could say again, we don't even remember phone numbers any more.
0:16:19 > 0:16:22The important thing about memory is that it we know how to get at it,
0:16:22 > 0:16:27and that's what these phones and these things like Google are so useful for,
0:16:27 > 0:16:31because we can... we know where to look up things,
0:16:31 > 0:16:35and that, of course, needs a lot of learning and a lot of practice.
0:16:35 > 0:16:38So, now it's a different skill. As an academic, are you finding that
0:16:38 > 0:16:41students have different skills now to what we expected?
0:16:41 > 0:16:43I think the mobile phone, the internet,
0:16:43 > 0:16:47these are things that are going to make us much more rich, intellectually.
0:16:47 > 0:16:51- I think it's unarguable, really, and I think they should be welcomed.- OK.
0:16:51 > 0:16:54Now, a huge chunk of our brain is taken up with movement.
0:16:54 > 0:16:56In fact, massive parts of the brain,
0:16:56 > 0:16:59not just in getting the legs moving, modelling the space around us
0:16:59 > 0:17:02and making sure we don't fall, and co-ordinating us.
0:17:02 > 0:17:05If you're ever wondering about that, next time you're walking,
0:17:05 > 0:17:08in the middle of it go, "Where is my left leg going?"
0:17:08 > 0:17:11Don't do that on the stairs. You will actually fall. That's bad advice to give.
0:17:11 > 0:17:16But there is interesting science around the information coming to our brains from different senses?
0:17:16 > 0:17:20Exactly. We thought we'd do an experiment to sort of test that out.
0:17:20 > 0:17:25- I've got a hand here. It's an artificial rubber hand. - A mannequin's hand.
0:17:25 > 0:17:29There's no way you'd think that's your own hand.
0:17:29 > 0:17:30- Of course not.- But maybe there is.
0:17:30 > 0:17:34Maybe we could actually fool the brain into thinking that is your own hand
0:17:34 > 0:17:38by some very simple mechanical movements.
0:17:38 > 0:17:41It's remarkable, how you just obstruct someone's sight
0:17:41 > 0:17:43and have a hand that could be yours
0:17:43 > 0:17:48and then start doing the same thing to both, how you can start to feel this alien hand.
0:17:48 > 0:17:52- So, we need a volunteer for this. It could be you or I... - We know it's a fake hand.
0:17:52 > 0:17:54- So, I'm going for that guy there. - OK.
0:17:54 > 0:17:58- Conveniently wearing a microphone. - What can I say?- Come here.
0:17:59 > 0:18:01Now, our fake hand has got this shirt on,
0:18:01 > 0:18:04so do you mind wearing a similar shirt?
0:18:04 > 0:18:09- The largest man we found! What's your name?- Luke.
0:18:09 > 0:18:12- How are you, Luke? It suits you.- It's nice.
0:18:12 > 0:18:14- A good fit.- Could be made for you.
0:18:14 > 0:18:16Would you sit down, Luke? As if that is where you'd be sitting,
0:18:16 > 0:18:19- with your hand in front.- Yeah.
0:18:19 > 0:18:23- That's it- OK, cool. - How does that feel?- Yeah.
0:18:23 > 0:18:26No, we also have to put this on, so that it feels like a continuous...
0:18:26 > 0:18:29Gotcha, gotcha. Sort of shirt...
0:18:29 > 0:18:32Now, you think this is weird? Watch this.
0:18:32 > 0:18:36I'm going to get on this box and give you a manicure.
0:18:36 > 0:18:39- Have you ever had a manicure? - Not professionally, no.- OK.
0:18:39 > 0:18:43Well, this is not going to be a first for you.
0:18:43 > 0:18:45It's definitely an unprofessional manicure.
0:18:45 > 0:18:47So, you can see that hand and, in a sense,
0:18:47 > 0:18:50your brain is thinking, perhaps, "That is my hand,"
0:18:50 > 0:18:52because it's in the right place, isn't it?
0:18:52 > 0:18:54Now, that's just your vision,
0:18:54 > 0:18:57but we want to do multi-multi-multimodal perceptions,
0:18:57 > 0:19:00so we're going to start adding the sense of touch.
0:19:00 > 0:19:03So, if I stroke both fingers at the same time and in the same place
0:19:03 > 0:19:05with the same frequency, your brain is thinking,
0:19:05 > 0:19:08"Hold on. I can see it's perhaps my hand,
0:19:08 > 0:19:11"and I can feel exactly what I should feel."
0:19:11 > 0:19:13The back of the hand is very sensitive, like that.
0:19:13 > 0:19:15I do feel like I want to move it now.
0:19:15 > 0:19:17Really?
0:19:17 > 0:19:20LAUGHTER
0:19:20 > 0:19:22APPLAUSE
0:19:27 > 0:19:31- Did that feel strange?- Yeah, really strange. It felt like...
0:19:31 > 0:19:35Yeah. Like I had a really bad dead arm, or something,
0:19:35 > 0:19:38- and I was just trying and trying. - Did you...when the hammer came up,
0:19:38 > 0:19:39- did you think...?- Yeah.
0:19:39 > 0:19:42I thought, "Oh, God, my hand's squished."
0:19:44 > 0:19:47- That hand there, does the hand flinch in any way?- I couldn't see...
0:19:47 > 0:19:49Yeah, it did.
0:19:49 > 0:19:51We have a slow motion, by the way,
0:19:51 > 0:19:54of your reaction to the arrival of the hammer.
0:19:54 > 0:19:57LAUGHTER
0:19:57 > 0:20:00- Cheers.- Well done. Thank you very much indeed.- Thanks a lot.
0:20:05 > 0:20:09So, someone with an actual limb, you give them a false limb, you give them the impression
0:20:09 > 0:20:11of the false limb, their brain can fill in the gaps.
0:20:11 > 0:20:13But the opposite is also true.
0:20:13 > 0:20:16Exactly. So, phantom limb syndrome, where someone has lost a limb -
0:20:16 > 0:20:19they sometimes feel that their limb is still there.
0:20:19 > 0:20:21But sometimes that's even weirder because it is clenched
0:20:21 > 0:20:23or they're in great pain.
0:20:23 > 0:20:26So in order to get rid of that feeling,
0:20:26 > 0:20:29people use a similar technique with a mirror and a box, so one arm
0:20:29 > 0:20:33is reflecting the other, so you'd perceive yourself as having two hands,
0:20:33 > 0:20:37- and then you can get the other hand to be all flexible and stretch. - Stretch?- Stretch, yeah.
0:20:37 > 0:20:41Getting our brains to control things remotely, that are not directly
0:20:41 > 0:20:44attached to you, again sounds like the ultimate in science fiction.
0:20:44 > 0:20:47But Dr Helen Czerski has uncovered some new research which is starting
0:20:47 > 0:20:51to make some startling inroads in that direction.
0:21:00 > 0:21:04I'm finding it quite hard to control this robotic arm.
0:21:04 > 0:21:07But a few months ago, a woman called Cathy Hutchinson picked up
0:21:07 > 0:21:09a coffee cup with a robotic arm.
0:21:13 > 0:21:17It was a special event because Cathy is paralysed from the neck down.
0:21:20 > 0:21:24She was controlling the robot arm just with her thoughts.
0:21:30 > 0:21:33This remarkable moment was the result of five years' intense
0:21:33 > 0:21:37collaboration between Cathy and a team of over 40 scientists.
0:21:40 > 0:21:43Our brains are buzzing with electrical activity,
0:21:43 > 0:21:46signals whizzing around all the time.
0:21:46 > 0:21:49They listened in on those signals,
0:21:49 > 0:21:54isolated the ones that are just associated with moving one hand,
0:21:54 > 0:21:57and then used those signals to control an external device.
0:21:59 > 0:22:03'Leigh Hochberg, who led the research, is going to show me how it all works,
0:22:03 > 0:22:07'starting with a brain on loan from the medical school.'
0:22:07 > 0:22:09- Oh, it's got stuff at the bottom! - It does.
0:22:09 > 0:22:11This stuff would be the spinal cord.
0:22:12 > 0:22:15'If you have a stroke, it can disrupt the connections between your
0:22:15 > 0:22:20'motor cortex and your spinal cord, leaving you paralysed.'
0:22:20 > 0:22:24'But remarkably, when we imagine moving, we still generate
0:22:24 > 0:22:28'signals in our motor cortex that can be detected with electrodes.'
0:22:28 > 0:22:30So, tell me what this is.
0:22:30 > 0:22:32This is the BrainGate implant that we've been
0:22:32 > 0:22:34using in our clinical trials.
0:22:34 > 0:22:38If you squint your eyes, there's 100 tiny electrodes,
0:22:38 > 0:22:41each of which is a millimetre or 1.5 millimetres long.
0:22:41 > 0:22:44It would be placed essentially right on the motor cortex,
0:22:44 > 0:22:47right about there, and then the cells of interest are somewhere
0:22:47 > 0:22:52between a millimetre and 1.5 millilitres deep inside the brain.
0:22:52 > 0:22:55Soon after the implant was placed in Cathy's brain,
0:22:55 > 0:22:59Leigh's team recorded this signal from a single neuron.
0:22:59 > 0:23:01CRACKLING
0:23:04 > 0:23:08It is the sound Cathy's thoughts as she imagines moving her hand.
0:23:08 > 0:23:09Open your hand.
0:23:13 > 0:23:14Relax.
0:23:14 > 0:23:17- You can hear it firing away, that rat-tat-tat-tat. - That crackling.
0:23:17 > 0:23:20That staccato crackling, like an old AM radio.
0:23:21 > 0:23:24That's the language of the nervous system.
0:23:24 > 0:23:26It's how neurons talk to neurons,
0:23:26 > 0:23:27it's how neurons talk to muscle,
0:23:27 > 0:23:31and that's the language that we're trying to decode.
0:23:31 > 0:23:35'It took a long time, but gradually the team learned to recognise Cathy's
0:23:35 > 0:23:41'different brain signals as she imagined moving her hand in different directions...
0:23:41 > 0:23:45'until they were finally able to use them to drive the robotic arm.'
0:23:45 > 0:23:48- How did you feel when that happened? - It was an amazing moment for her,
0:23:48 > 0:23:51it was an amazing moment for all of us on the research team,
0:23:51 > 0:23:54and it suggested that we're on our way towards developing
0:23:54 > 0:23:58a technology that would allow somebody with paralysis
0:23:58 > 0:24:01to regain some of that mobility and independence that they'd lost.
0:24:01 > 0:24:04'While Leigh and his team are decoding the brain
0:24:04 > 0:24:07'signals from the motor cortex, another group of scientists
0:24:07 > 0:24:12'are beginning to tune into the very heart of human consciousness.
0:24:12 > 0:24:17'They are trying to isolate the brain signals of speech and thought.
0:24:17 > 0:24:21'But tuning into our brain's language centres isn't easy.'
0:24:21 > 0:24:22If you're squeamish,
0:24:22 > 0:24:26it might be a good idea to look away for the next few moments.
0:24:27 > 0:24:31This is footage of an epileptic patient having life-saving surgery.
0:24:31 > 0:24:36'You can see a sheet of electrodes being placed over the surface of their brain.'
0:24:39 > 0:24:43The surgeons use these electrodes to locate the source of epileptic
0:24:43 > 0:24:48seizures, but this unusual access to the brain also is an enormous
0:24:48 > 0:24:51window of opportunity for research.
0:24:51 > 0:24:54Because it brings the otherwise inaccessible language centres
0:24:54 > 0:24:56of the brain within our reach.
0:24:57 > 0:25:02Here in St Louis, Missouri, brain surgeon Eric Leuthardt has been using
0:25:02 > 0:25:07this system to tune into the most basic building blocks of language - phonemes.
0:25:07 > 0:25:11A phoneme is a unit of spoken sound like "ah" or "ooh".
0:25:11 > 0:25:16Eric asks the participants in the trial to speak those sounds
0:25:16 > 0:25:21out loud so that he could monitor which areas of the brain were active when they were spoken.
0:25:21 > 0:25:23He also asked them to imagine the sounds,
0:25:23 > 0:25:27and what he found was really interesting.
0:25:28 > 0:25:30Thinking of words before you speak
0:25:30 > 0:25:34happens in a different part of the brain than actually speaking them out loud.
0:25:35 > 0:25:39Eric and his colleagues managed to isolate signals from both areas.
0:25:39 > 0:25:44It was the first time anyone has ever tuned into our unspoken, inner voice.
0:25:45 > 0:25:47To demonstrate it, he taught his computers to recognise
0:25:47 > 0:25:51the brain signals and use them to move a cursor.
0:25:51 > 0:25:53Here is a video of the patient,
0:25:53 > 0:25:57who has her electrodes implanted over the surface of her brain.
0:25:57 > 0:26:01Now, what she's doing is, she's saying, "Ooh, ooh, ooh,"
0:26:01 > 0:26:03or, "Ah, ah, ah."
0:26:03 > 0:26:05Essentially, each time she says, "Ooh,"
0:26:05 > 0:26:09it moves the cursor in one direction, just a little bit.
0:26:09 > 0:26:12And each time she says, "Ah," it moves in the opposite direction.
0:26:12 > 0:26:15So she really has to use her speech intention to get the cursor
0:26:15 > 0:26:18to go to the target.
0:26:18 > 0:26:22Here you can see she's imagining "ooh" and "ah" to control the cursor.
0:26:22 > 0:26:26- So no sound is coming out of her mouth?- She's not saying anything.
0:26:26 > 0:26:29This is purely based on her inner voice.
0:26:31 > 0:26:35'The computer is effectively reading her thoughts.'
0:26:37 > 0:26:42So do you feel that you're one step closer to being able to mind-read?
0:26:42 > 0:26:44Well, yes.
0:26:44 > 0:26:46I think that again, as a scientist,
0:26:46 > 0:26:49you always have to be cautious about what you can promise.
0:26:49 > 0:26:52But it does provide some of the early demonstration that
0:26:52 > 0:26:56we can start to capture some things that more closely approximate
0:26:56 > 0:26:59what it is to make up human thoughts.
0:27:06 > 0:27:08- That's incredible stuff. - Just astonishing.
0:27:08 > 0:27:09It's astonishing.
0:27:09 > 0:27:13Whatever about seeing the brain's reaction of being able to
0:27:13 > 0:27:16measure as they actually said it, even thinking about saying
0:27:16 > 0:27:20"ah" and "ooh" is enough to create the same reaction in the brain?
0:27:20 > 0:27:22Yeah, so, what they did was very clever.
0:27:22 > 0:27:24They showed her an arm moving
0:27:24 > 0:27:27and made her imagine that she was doing it and then
0:27:27 > 0:27:30they looked at the signals and then gradually they gave her the control.
0:27:30 > 0:27:34So they learned from her and she learned to control the arm.
0:27:34 > 0:27:36I am completely amazed at this film.
0:27:36 > 0:27:40I think it's really, really interesting, particularly
0:27:40 > 0:27:45that it's not just about having a specific movement
0:27:45 > 0:27:47or a specific sound that is made,
0:27:47 > 0:27:50but imagining the movement, imagining the sound.
0:27:50 > 0:27:52What kind of conditions is this going to help you with?
0:27:52 > 0:27:55Amputees, people with locked-in syndrome, people with strokes?
0:27:55 > 0:27:59So the first thought is obviously people who've been injured in some way,
0:27:59 > 0:28:02and the most serious injuries come to mind, first,
0:28:02 > 0:28:06so locked-in syndrome is one, amputees, paralysis, lots of things.
0:28:06 > 0:28:10But then Eric, certainly the second brain surgeon, is completely
0:28:10 > 0:28:14convinced that this will become normal for healthy people,
0:28:14 > 0:28:16because machines can do a lot of things we can't.
0:28:16 > 0:28:20They can go to places that are colder or have conditions that
0:28:20 > 0:28:24we can't go to, or they're on other planets.
0:28:24 > 0:28:27But we have... Humans are amazing at pattern recognition and
0:28:27 > 0:28:32at solving problems, but if you have direct control, we could go there.
0:28:32 > 0:28:37- We could use this for space exploration or for mining or for surgery?- Anything.- Anything at all.
0:28:37 > 0:28:41That's fantastic. Still to come - Jessica Hynes goes on a journey
0:28:41 > 0:28:45into her own brain, and Alok Jha asks if we should be using smart drugs.
0:28:45 > 0:28:46You can get more information
0:28:46 > 0:28:48by going to the website or following us.
0:28:48 > 0:28:50Details are on your screen now.
0:28:54 > 0:28:58OK, but first, our brains are also responsible for our personalities.
0:28:58 > 0:29:00That's the location of our personality.
0:29:00 > 0:29:03I want to bring in our resident neuroscientist, Tali Sharot.
0:29:03 > 0:29:04Tali, thank you very much.
0:29:09 > 0:29:13Tali, you're currently in your own research investigating
0:29:13 > 0:29:16one aspect of personality. Which is that?
0:29:16 > 0:29:19Well, one thing that we're looking at is optimism.
0:29:19 > 0:29:24So that's our tendency to expect positive events in the future.
0:29:24 > 0:29:26But what's really interesting is that most of us
0:29:26 > 0:29:31have what is known as an optimism bias, or unrealistic optimism,
0:29:31 > 0:29:33which means that we tend to overestimate
0:29:33 > 0:29:36the likelihood of experiencing good events in our lives,
0:29:36 > 0:29:40such as longevity or professional success, and we underestimate
0:29:40 > 0:29:43the likelihood of experiencing negative events in our lives.
0:29:43 > 0:29:47A lot of people will say, "I'm a realist, I'm a little bit of a pessimist."
0:29:47 > 0:29:49So we're not aware of our own optimism.
0:29:49 > 0:29:52It is a bit of a trick that our brain plays on us.
0:29:52 > 0:29:54Are there any sample questions we can ask?
0:29:54 > 0:29:56We can try it here. Let's see.
0:29:56 > 0:30:00OK, so, who here believes that if and when they get married,
0:30:00 > 0:30:03they will get divorced? Just put your hands up.
0:30:05 > 0:30:07- OK.- And the divorce rate is?
0:30:07 > 0:30:10Divorce rate in the Western world is between 40% and 50%.
0:30:10 > 0:30:14I would say, what, 5% of our audience.
0:30:14 > 0:30:17Very few people get married going, "Ah, I'll probably give this five years."
0:30:17 > 0:30:21Exactly. People who get married... There was a survey...
0:30:21 > 0:30:24Newlyweds estimate their own likelihood of divorce at 0%.
0:30:24 > 0:30:26LAUGHTER
0:30:26 > 0:30:28Even people who should know better, like divorce lawyers,
0:30:28 > 0:30:31they estimate their own divorce rates as about 0% as well.
0:30:31 > 0:30:33Let's do another one.
0:30:33 > 0:30:39This time, think about how well you get along with other people, OK, relative to the population.
0:30:39 > 0:30:42So, who believes they're at the bottom 25% of getting
0:30:42 > 0:30:44along well with others?
0:30:44 > 0:30:48Bottom 25. So we have one person, two, maybe three people.
0:30:48 > 0:30:49Bottom 50%?
0:30:50 > 0:30:54Not many. Top 50% for getting along well with others?
0:30:54 > 0:30:56Right, that's about 90% of the population.
0:30:56 > 0:31:00So 90% of the population think they're in the top 50% of the population?
0:31:00 > 0:31:03Well, actually, in an actual survey, they found
0:31:03 > 0:31:08that 25% of the population believe they are at the top 1%
0:31:08 > 0:31:10That's known as a superiority illusion,
0:31:10 > 0:31:13which means that we tend to think that we're better than most
0:31:13 > 0:31:16other people and we're better than what we actually are.
0:31:16 > 0:31:19Now, you've been studying this for a number of years, I know,
0:31:19 > 0:31:20and you set tests for this,
0:31:20 > 0:31:23not only on our studio audience, but on the team here as well.
0:31:23 > 0:31:25Yeah, so we put together an experiment
0:31:25 > 0:31:28and I think we're going to show you the results in a little bit.
0:31:28 > 0:31:30Fantastic. Now, we've also talked, by the way, about memory.
0:31:30 > 0:31:32We've touched on memory a couple of times.
0:31:32 > 0:31:35Memory's very interesting as well because it's not like there's
0:31:35 > 0:31:38one store for memory, essentially, is there?
0:31:38 > 0:31:41Well, there are many different kinds of memory.
0:31:41 > 0:31:46The memory that you will call on when I ask you what you
0:31:46 > 0:31:50had for breakfast this morning is completely different from
0:31:50 > 0:31:53the memory that's where, for example,
0:31:53 > 0:31:56when I ask you, "What is the capital of Mongolia?"
0:31:56 > 0:32:01We have spatial memory, which is very different, visual memory,
0:32:01 > 0:32:03auditory memory - all sorts of memories.
0:32:03 > 0:32:05Long-term memory, short-term memory...
0:32:05 > 0:32:09Should people be really insulted by the fact that I can't remember their names?
0:32:09 > 0:32:12- Because I really am bad with names. - Some people can't remember faces.
0:32:12 > 0:32:14I'm also bad with faces.
0:32:14 > 0:32:17I'm sure you have ways of glossing over this.
0:32:17 > 0:32:20- I do, I do. I am tremendously charming.- We all do.
0:32:20 > 0:32:24This is why people, in order to remember,
0:32:24 > 0:32:29recommend a special method, which is quite interesting.
0:32:29 > 0:32:31It's like wandering through a space, through a house.
0:32:31 > 0:32:34You walk through a house you are familiar with.
0:32:34 > 0:32:36Yeah, and that seems to work.
0:32:36 > 0:32:41- That's a trick that will increase all your memory.- Very good, OK.
0:32:41 > 0:32:44Actors obviously use their memory constantly,
0:32:44 > 0:32:45with new scripts for show after show.
0:32:45 > 0:32:48We send Twenty Twelve actor Jessica Hynes to find out
0:32:48 > 0:32:51what effect this was having on her brain.
0:32:52 > 0:32:55I'm on my way to a cognition and brain sciences unit,
0:32:55 > 0:32:59where I'm going to meet some scientists who study the brain.
0:32:59 > 0:33:02They do this by actually looking inside the brain
0:33:02 > 0:33:08and then studying the brain's responses to controlled stimuli.
0:33:08 > 0:33:11I can't think of a better way to spend an afternoon.
0:33:13 > 0:33:17Scientists here are trying to measure how effectively humans
0:33:17 > 0:33:19can control their consciousness.
0:33:21 > 0:33:25Michael Anderson and Roland Benoit plan to use MRI scanning
0:33:25 > 0:33:29to watch how effectively I can do that in a memory test.
0:33:29 > 0:33:32But first, they say they need to train me.
0:33:32 > 0:33:34No press ups involved, I hope.
0:33:36 > 0:33:38Vice.
0:33:38 > 0:33:40Hero.
0:33:40 > 0:33:43In the very beginning, she's provided with a set of word pairs,
0:33:43 > 0:33:46and she's trained to provide the second of the two words
0:33:46 > 0:33:47on the right-hand side
0:33:47 > 0:33:50whenever she's given the word on the left-hand side.
0:33:50 > 0:33:54So if I see the word "vault", I have to think of the word "gold".
0:33:54 > 0:33:56Hexagon.
0:33:56 > 0:33:58Parent.
0:33:58 > 0:34:01And she's drilled until she knows these pairs really well.
0:34:01 > 0:34:04I'm really looking forward to having a picture of my brain.
0:34:04 > 0:34:07'Michael and Roland also want a picture of my brain,
0:34:07 > 0:34:09'using their MRI scanner.'
0:34:13 > 0:34:16But this is no mere memory test.
0:34:16 > 0:34:19First, they'll watch what parts of my brain are active
0:34:19 > 0:34:21when I remember a word pair.
0:34:21 > 0:34:23But then they'll look for a difference
0:34:23 > 0:34:26when I'm instructed not to think of a pair.
0:34:26 > 0:34:29When a reminder pops up in green,
0:34:29 > 0:34:31like it's happening right now,
0:34:31 > 0:34:33that's her instruction, "Go,"
0:34:33 > 0:34:36to think about a memory that goes with that.
0:34:36 > 0:34:39However, when a reminder appears in red, such as this one,
0:34:39 > 0:34:42that's her instruction to stop,
0:34:42 > 0:34:45to prevent the associated memory from entering consciousness, even for a second.
0:34:45 > 0:34:49Good on the first red, and then, just as it went off the screen,
0:34:49 > 0:34:52the associated word just popped into my head.
0:34:52 > 0:34:55Please do your very best, yeah, OK?
0:34:55 > 0:34:58When Jessica is trying to keep something out of consciousness,
0:34:58 > 0:35:01whatever part of the brain it is that is doing that will have
0:35:01 > 0:35:03to work harder.
0:35:03 > 0:35:06When it's working harder, the blood flow increases
0:35:06 > 0:35:08and that's what we can see.
0:35:08 > 0:35:10As the experiment progresses,
0:35:10 > 0:35:12you just work out ways of blocking it out.
0:35:12 > 0:35:14And the more you think about the red word,
0:35:14 > 0:35:18the easier it is to actively forget the associated word.
0:35:18 > 0:35:21What we're looking at here is a slightly creepy
0:35:21 > 0:35:25three-dimensional rendering of your actual skull.
0:35:25 > 0:35:26I like the wood look.
0:35:26 > 0:35:28Yes, this would be what it would look like
0:35:28 > 0:35:31if you had a wood sculpture of your head.
0:35:31 > 0:35:33- A wooden head.- Yes.
0:35:33 > 0:35:37On the periphery here, it's slightly darker grey.
0:35:37 > 0:35:41- Is that a problem?- No! It's perfectly normal.
0:35:41 > 0:35:45- Good. I was just asking. - That is your grey matter.
0:35:45 > 0:35:50On the inside is the white matter, literally, fat.
0:35:50 > 0:35:53So it takes £1 million-worth of Cambridge's finest scanning
0:35:53 > 0:35:57equipment to tell me that I have a wooden head filled with fat.
0:35:57 > 0:36:00I'll give Michael a while longer to process my results.
0:36:00 > 0:36:03In the meantime, his colleague James Rowe can show me
0:36:03 > 0:36:06where memories are in the human brain.
0:36:06 > 0:36:09This is about the right size and weight of a human brain.
0:36:09 > 0:36:13It's not a human brain. It's made from wood, but it's about the right size and shape.
0:36:13 > 0:36:15Even I could have told you that...
0:36:15 > 0:36:18'Wood effect is obviously very popular.'
0:36:18 > 0:36:21If we look here at this model, this is a plastic model of the brain.
0:36:21 > 0:36:22It's slightly larger than a real brain.
0:36:22 > 0:36:26But it's inside here, we see where the hippocampus lies,
0:36:26 > 0:36:28which is critical for those long-term memories.
0:36:28 > 0:36:31But it is in constant communication, or conversation,
0:36:31 > 0:36:33between the hippocampus and the frontal lobe.
0:36:33 > 0:36:36And the retrieval which comes with this conversation
0:36:36 > 0:36:38between different memory areas is very precisely tuned.
0:36:38 > 0:36:42It's very exact in what you want to call in mind and when you want it.
0:36:42 > 0:36:46- And it doesn't take much to make that inefficient.- About four pints?
0:36:46 > 0:36:51Less than four pints, in my case. You may be better trained than I am.
0:36:51 > 0:36:53So, what about me?
0:36:53 > 0:36:57Could I control what I chose to remember and what I chose to forget?
0:36:59 > 0:37:02So this is the proportion of the words that you recalled correctly
0:37:02 > 0:37:06in the controlled condition, which you did fantastically well, by the way.
0:37:06 > 0:37:0895% correct. Very good memory.
0:37:08 > 0:37:10Nice tie.
0:37:10 > 0:37:12Thanks!
0:37:12 > 0:37:16The ones that you tried to keep out of consciousness,
0:37:16 > 0:37:19you were successful at blocking out some of the memories.
0:37:19 > 0:37:22In fact, I would say you're better than average.
0:37:24 > 0:37:26That was such an interesting day.
0:37:26 > 0:37:30I'm going to go and now spend a bit of attention on my basal ganglia
0:37:30 > 0:37:33and my ventral striatum.
0:37:34 > 0:37:38Ladies and gentlemen, Jessica Hynes.
0:37:38 > 0:37:40Hi, very nice to meet you.
0:37:40 > 0:37:41How are you?
0:37:43 > 0:37:47You looked quite sheepish there, but you did way better than average.
0:37:47 > 0:37:51He said that I was about 16% effective,
0:37:51 > 0:37:55and he said the average person is about 8% effective.
0:37:55 > 0:37:58So I was about twice as effective as the average person.
0:37:58 > 0:38:00- Why, do you think? - It was interesting.
0:38:00 > 0:38:03He asked me and I sort of was going to say,
0:38:03 > 0:38:06"Maybe you could tell me. I don't know. You're the scientist."
0:38:06 > 0:38:09The only thing I could think of was whether there was a relationship
0:38:09 > 0:38:12between the type of work you mentioned, you know, learning lines.
0:38:12 > 0:38:14But I think it's beyond learning lines
0:38:14 > 0:38:16in terms of actually memory recall.
0:38:16 > 0:38:19I think there's a part of performance and creativity
0:38:19 > 0:38:22which is as much about suppression as it is about remembering.
0:38:22 > 0:38:26If you're trying to create a reality with another actor,
0:38:26 > 0:38:28very effectively and powerfully,
0:38:28 > 0:38:31what you want to do is suppress the real reality.
0:38:31 > 0:38:34- Who they actually are. - And who you are as well.
0:38:34 > 0:38:38So I did wonder whether there was some connection there.
0:38:38 > 0:38:41- Does that make sense? - Yes, it does. Absolutely.
0:38:41 > 0:38:42An act of creative doublethink,
0:38:42 > 0:38:46that you can keep both realities compartmentalised?
0:38:46 > 0:38:50Yes, that, certainly. But there has to be this huge control...
0:38:50 > 0:38:52And they did talk about control,
0:38:52 > 0:38:56and a large part of the human brain is exactly about control,
0:38:56 > 0:39:00you know, switching on, switching off, doing very subtle things.
0:39:00 > 0:39:03This bit can be trained.
0:39:03 > 0:39:06The idea of suppressing memories would be useful
0:39:06 > 0:39:08to post-traumatic stress cases?
0:39:08 > 0:39:12I think the idea of wiping out certain memories is fascinating.
0:39:12 > 0:39:16But I think there might be more bad effects than good effects.
0:39:16 > 0:39:18Surely if we could just wipe out...
0:39:18 > 0:39:23I have facts about Kim Kardashian in my head that are no use to me...
0:39:23 > 0:39:26- Images.- Images, all of this.
0:39:26 > 0:39:30I have a dossier about this woman in my head.
0:39:30 > 0:39:33You never know how this will come in useful.
0:39:33 > 0:39:36The stuff of the brain is similar in all animals.
0:39:36 > 0:39:39But the ratio of different sections differ
0:39:39 > 0:39:41depending on the environment they have adapted to.
0:39:41 > 0:39:45For example, human brains put a lot of effort into understanding and using language,
0:39:45 > 0:39:48but it is not the same for all animals. Here is some data.
0:39:48 > 0:39:52You live inside your brain, 77% of which is water,
0:39:52 > 0:39:578% protein and 12% fat. The rest is a mixture of carbohydrates,
0:39:57 > 0:39:59soluble organics and salts.
0:39:59 > 0:40:04What is it that makes us so smart? Is it the size?
0:40:04 > 0:40:08The biggest brain on the planet belongs to the sperm whale, at 7kg.
0:40:08 > 0:40:11But a dolphin's weighs in at 1.6kg.
0:40:11 > 0:40:16The elephant's brain averages 4.7. The average human's weighs about 1.4.
0:40:16 > 0:40:20Interestingly, Einstein was a lightweight.
0:40:20 > 0:40:24His brain weighed only 1.2kg.
0:40:24 > 0:40:26Clearly, size isn't everything.
0:40:26 > 0:40:32Scientists have compared an animal's weight to the size of their brains.
0:40:32 > 0:40:35This is what is called the EQ. A rabbit has an EQ of 0.4.
0:40:35 > 0:40:41A cat has an EQ of 1. A dog, 1.2. The elephant has an EQ of 2.
0:40:41 > 0:40:44A dolphin of 4.1.
0:40:44 > 0:40:49Our kissing cousins, the Neanderthals, come in with 4.7.
0:40:49 > 0:40:52And we humans have an EQ of a whopping 7.
0:40:52 > 0:40:56However, this overlooks how much of the brain is actually used for thinking.
0:40:56 > 0:41:01More recently, scientists have begun to count neurons.
0:41:01 > 0:41:06A leech has about 10,000. A cockroach, 1 million.
0:41:06 > 0:41:13A cat has 1 billion. A chimp has close to 7 billion brain cells.
0:41:13 > 0:41:16And you? Most recently, it has been calculated that we humans
0:41:16 > 0:41:20have 86 billion neurons firing in concert.
0:41:20 > 0:41:23This is the brain.
0:41:23 > 0:41:26It uses 20% of the oxygen in our bodies and yet accounts for only
0:41:26 > 0:41:302% of our weight, which is something worth thinking about.
0:41:34 > 0:41:38Anyway... Right, we have a number of brains here.
0:41:38 > 0:41:43We are presuming that they are from adult animals. There are similarities.
0:41:43 > 0:41:45There are many similarities.
0:41:45 > 0:41:47They all have these two hemispheres
0:41:47 > 0:41:52and they have this folded sheet.
0:41:52 > 0:41:53Yes, why?
0:41:53 > 0:42:00We have a sheet here to fold. Actually the human brain, if you stretched it out flat, the cortex...
0:42:00 > 0:42:02- This is the outer bit. - The outer bit, yes.
0:42:02 > 0:42:05It would be about that big.
0:42:05 > 0:42:11All these folds would be that large. The volume of the human brain, if you took the surface
0:42:11 > 0:42:15- and it was smooth, would be that big.- That's right.- But because it is all folded...
0:42:15 > 0:42:19All folded in valleys and ridges
0:42:19 > 0:42:22and it sort of goes altogether, like this.
0:42:22 > 0:42:27It is a great evolutionary trait because that allows you to have more activity into a small area.
0:42:27 > 0:42:29Absolutely.
0:42:29 > 0:42:34The increase of abilities is often associated with these structures.
0:42:34 > 0:42:39That means that this limited area of contact with the core is
0:42:39 > 0:42:40suddenly magnified.
0:42:40 > 0:42:43It is a brilliant way of getting around the fact that you
0:42:43 > 0:42:46cannot really get a massive head, or it's not so great to have a massive head.
0:42:46 > 0:42:51We do have a picture - I think we have used me for this - of what I look like
0:42:51 > 0:42:54and what I would look like if we had to have the same volume.
0:42:56 > 0:43:01- What is that?- That is a fresh calf's brain.
0:43:01 > 0:43:06Those people wondering whether the brain is hardware or software,
0:43:06 > 0:43:08let me tell you it is soft.
0:43:08 > 0:43:11It is kind of amazing to hold in your hand.
0:43:11 > 0:43:12There's 12% fat in it
0:43:12 > 0:43:16and actually, if you take out the water, it's more than 50% of the matter.
0:43:16 > 0:43:19The important thing is that when you put a brain in a blender...
0:43:19 > 0:43:23You are not really going to do this, are you?
0:43:23 > 0:43:26- You are not really going to do this? - You can discover where that fat is.
0:43:26 > 0:43:28I don't want to know. Oh!
0:43:36 > 0:43:39Oh! Oh!
0:43:44 > 0:43:50Now we have moulded the blood and the fat and protein, you might
0:43:50 > 0:43:54- think that would be a delicious thing to eat now.- I would not.
0:43:54 > 0:44:00We can look at what the constituents of this thing are. That is what it is.
0:44:00 > 0:44:02If we add one of our other favourite...
0:44:02 > 0:44:03Our favourite.
0:44:03 > 0:44:07It is almost neat alcohol. This is a very strong vodka.
0:44:08 > 0:44:12- We use this for everything. - And then we mix this up.
0:44:12 > 0:44:16The fat is going to start dissolving in that alcohol.
0:44:16 > 0:44:21It will leave behind things like the protein mass and the other constituents in there.
0:44:21 > 0:44:25You can see it kind of changing. I am mixing it around.
0:44:25 > 0:44:27It is difficult to get this kind of technique going.
0:44:27 > 0:44:29It looks easy.
0:44:29 > 0:44:32If I gave this spoon to you, Dara...
0:44:32 > 0:44:34With my lack of training, yeah!
0:44:34 > 0:44:37Now, if we are right, the fat should have
0:44:37 > 0:44:39dissolved into this alcohol layer.
0:44:39 > 0:44:42We can separate that off by putting it through a filter.
0:44:45 > 0:44:49- We are taking all the protein out. - That has all been left in there.
0:44:49 > 0:44:53What we should be left with is a solution which is mostly alcohol
0:44:53 > 0:44:56with some dissolved fats in it and a few other things.
0:44:56 > 0:44:59- How do we show that? It looks clear. - I know it looks like that.
0:44:59 > 0:45:04You could take my word for it, or we can get the fat to come out of solution by adding water.
0:45:04 > 0:45:07Fat doesn't dissolve very well in water, it sort of floats.
0:45:07 > 0:45:11This should go cloudy. There it goes.
0:45:11 > 0:45:16That is a little emulsion of fat globules from that brain.
0:45:17 > 0:45:22In case you were wondering where all the fat is - there it is.
0:45:22 > 0:45:26It is the so-called white matter in the brain. It is white because of the fat.
0:45:26 > 0:45:29But it's sheath around nerve fibres
0:45:29 > 0:45:33and the more of these sheaths you have, the better the conduction is
0:45:33 > 0:45:36of the speed of the signals.
0:45:36 > 0:45:40This is the fat that sheaths the neurons, allows you to think fast
0:45:40 > 0:45:42and watch this television programme.
0:45:42 > 0:45:45Thank you very, very much.
0:45:49 > 0:45:52We are covering a mind-boggling range of topics on tonight's show.
0:45:52 > 0:45:54If you have any questions about the brain,
0:45:54 > 0:45:57we have our after-hours Science Club starting at the end of the show
0:45:57 > 0:46:01where a top neuroscientist will be waiting for your questions.
0:46:05 > 0:46:09We are at our Hall of Fame. Is there anything you want to add to this?
0:46:09 > 0:46:13Yes. My hero is Hermann von Helmholtz.
0:46:13 > 0:46:16- Here he is.- He was a physicist. He was involved in thermodynamics.
0:46:16 > 0:46:21He was an incredibly well-known physicist in the 19th century.
0:46:21 > 0:46:23He was a polymath.
0:46:23 > 0:46:27What is less well known is that he was also a neuroscientist.
0:46:27 > 0:46:31And he made some stunning discoveries.
0:46:31 > 0:46:37So he was actually able to measure the speed of conduction in a nerve.
0:46:37 > 0:46:43The other thing I like about his neuroscience is that he
0:46:43 > 0:46:47discovered, he invented the idea, of unconscious influences.
0:46:47 > 0:46:53He actually invented the deep cognitive unconscious
0:46:53 > 0:46:55well before Freud.
0:46:55 > 0:46:58- Wow, that's very good.- That is why I want him to be recognised.
0:46:58 > 0:47:00I'm going to add a few people to this.
0:47:00 > 0:47:06Every week, I jokingly mention people who have made silly contributions to it,
0:47:06 > 0:47:09but there are people constantly on Twitter, Facebook and the website,
0:47:09 > 0:47:13about people who they think should join the canon, as it were.
0:47:13 > 0:47:16Ernest Rutherford gets a lot of votes from people -
0:47:16 > 0:47:21the father of nuclear physics, in the Cavendish lab in Cambridge,
0:47:21 > 0:47:23discovered the enormous amount of space within it.
0:47:23 > 0:47:28Nikola Tesla, because they think that Edison did him down.
0:47:28 > 0:47:31He invented alternating current. Edison invented direct current,
0:47:31 > 0:47:34and Edison had 1,000 patents to his 100 patents.
0:47:34 > 0:47:37He is some sort of geek nerd hero.
0:47:38 > 0:47:42And a woman who doesn't... Rosalind Franklin.
0:47:42 > 0:47:44CHEERING
0:47:44 > 0:47:46Great.
0:47:46 > 0:47:48Who published a paper on the structure of DNA in
0:47:48 > 0:47:52the same edition of Nature as Watson and Crick, and a lot of people feel
0:47:52 > 0:47:57she does not get the credit she deserves for her part in that.
0:47:57 > 0:48:02It is also a lot about this sort of non-visibility of female scientists.
0:48:02 > 0:48:03It is important.
0:48:03 > 0:48:07The human brain has approximately 86 billion neurons
0:48:07 > 0:48:10but are yours working to full capacity?
0:48:10 > 0:48:13So-called smart drugs and medicines were developed for the treatment
0:48:13 > 0:48:14of mental health conditions,
0:48:14 > 0:48:16but now they are available to buy on the internet.
0:48:16 > 0:48:19Alok Jha reports on what could become a modern dilemma.
0:48:42 > 0:48:46If you look on the internet, you will find loads of examples
0:48:46 > 0:48:50of people who take smart drugs, writing about their experiences.
0:48:50 > 0:48:54I have got some of them here. "I went from a C average student to an A plus.
0:48:54 > 0:48:58"I wrote 2,000 words in an hour and a half." "My senses are sharper.
0:48:58 > 0:49:00"My work is much faster."
0:49:00 > 0:49:06I am always putting things off, dreading the big pieces of work that I have to do.
0:49:06 > 0:49:08If these drugs could help me out on that, I mean,
0:49:08 > 0:49:10I am really tempted to try one.
0:49:18 > 0:49:22So-called smart drugs cover a variety of prescription medicines
0:49:22 > 0:49:25originally developed to treat a range of brain disorders.
0:49:28 > 0:49:30Neuro-psychologist Mitul Mehta
0:49:30 > 0:49:33studies the different effects they have on the brain.
0:49:35 > 0:49:38If you think about cognitive enhancers, neurotrophics or psychostimulants,
0:49:38 > 0:49:43these are all terms that you might hear in relation to smart drugs.
0:49:43 > 0:49:47But they really refer to drugs that are designed to treat people
0:49:47 > 0:49:50with cognitive impairments such as Alzheimer's disease,
0:49:50 > 0:49:54patients with schizophrenia, patients with attention deficit disorder,
0:49:54 > 0:49:56traumatic brain injury.
0:49:56 > 0:49:59What are these drugs doing in the brains of people who are healthy?
0:49:59 > 0:50:03It might enhance information flow in certain brain systems,
0:50:03 > 0:50:06stabilising neutral activity, and this is one way
0:50:06 > 0:50:10we think psychostimulants might work in the frontal lobes of the brain.
0:50:10 > 0:50:15Another way they might work is by enhancing the signal-to-noise ratio,
0:50:15 > 0:50:18so making the signals a bit clearer in the brain.
0:50:22 > 0:50:28I did not realise it, but the use of smart drugs is allegedly quite widespread in the world of academia.
0:50:30 > 0:50:35Anders Sandberg is a philosopher who studies smart drugs.
0:50:35 > 0:50:40- Often under their influence.- My main cognitive enhancer is caffeine.
0:50:40 > 0:50:44But I do use modafinil, a prescription drug
0:50:44 > 0:50:47originally intended for narcolepsy,
0:50:47 > 0:50:51but I am using it for alertness and sharpening in my thinking.
0:50:51 > 0:50:54What should people be wary of before taking something like that?
0:50:54 > 0:50:56The cognitive enhancer, many of them are stimulants,
0:50:56 > 0:50:59and of course stimulants tend to raise your blood pressure,
0:50:59 > 0:51:01improve metabolism and exhaust you.
0:51:01 > 0:51:04But also, you can think about memory enhancers.
0:51:04 > 0:51:07They affect memory systems. You might learn a little bit too much.
0:51:07 > 0:51:11You can go a little bit obsessive. There are always trade-offs.
0:51:11 > 0:51:14You need to figure out the right drug for the right task.
0:51:16 > 0:51:19In sports performance, enhancing drugs are banned
0:51:19 > 0:51:23as we want athletes to compete au naturel.
0:51:23 > 0:51:25It is the same with exams.
0:51:25 > 0:51:30Schools and universities want to test your natural ability
0:51:30 > 0:51:34so, in that context, taking any smart drugs is cheating.
0:51:38 > 0:51:41At Cambridge University, Barbara Sahakian
0:51:41 > 0:51:45is looking at the wider social issues surrounding smart drugs.
0:51:47 > 0:51:49I have discussed it with student groups and some of them
0:51:49 > 0:51:52feel they are being coerced into using them.
0:51:52 > 0:51:55They know that other students are using them to get an advantage.
0:51:55 > 0:51:58But outside of competitive cleverness...
0:51:58 > 0:52:02Do you think that these drugs could help us have a better and more productive society?
0:52:02 > 0:52:06First of all, we obviously need to have the safety information,
0:52:06 > 0:52:08long-term safety information.
0:52:08 > 0:52:11But when you consider that we do have an ageing population
0:52:11 > 0:52:13and people want to stay at work better,
0:52:13 > 0:52:15want to function in their own homes for longer
0:52:15 > 0:52:18and not go into institutionalised care,
0:52:18 > 0:52:20we may well find that this is very good.
0:52:20 > 0:52:25We may also find that people are making faster discoveries and inventions.
0:52:28 > 0:52:31So smart drugs could help us be mentally sharper,
0:52:31 > 0:52:35boost concentration and stay focused.
0:52:35 > 0:52:37If we were all taking them,
0:52:37 > 0:52:39then society as a whole might even benefit,
0:52:39 > 0:52:41and as we are all living longer,
0:52:41 > 0:52:45smart drugs could help keep us mentally competitive in old age.
0:52:48 > 0:52:49So would I take them?
0:52:49 > 0:52:52I have got a lot of work on and lots of deadlines to meet,
0:52:52 > 0:52:55so I think anything that could help me along with that,
0:52:55 > 0:52:57I would be well up for it.
0:53:06 > 0:53:10- Are you on drugs right now? - Before you say that... No, I'm not.
0:53:10 > 0:53:12Why are you not on drugs right now?
0:53:12 > 0:53:14I did mean that at the end, that I am tempted by it,
0:53:14 > 0:53:19because Barbara Sahakian, who you saw there, has published something recently where
0:53:19 > 0:53:24she has indicated that one of the drugs we talked about, modafinil, a drug for narcolepsy,
0:53:24 > 0:53:27it's been tested for that, it's safe for that, but that drug
0:53:27 > 0:53:31can make you focus on something you might not find too interesting.
0:53:31 > 0:53:34You can focus on it for several hours, get the job out of the way.
0:53:34 > 0:53:39There are loads of things where you just want to get something out of the way. You procrastinate.
0:53:39 > 0:53:42There is something important to be said about all this.
0:53:42 > 0:53:46These drugs are not illegal, but we do not know how safe they are.
0:53:46 > 0:53:50You have to be quite careful when thinking about what to do in terms of taking them.
0:53:50 > 0:53:53You can't just jump in and take them yourself.
0:53:53 > 0:53:58Fine. I can understand the ethical debate about, we don't want some students
0:53:58 > 0:54:02who are on smart drugs to be competing with those who are not.
0:54:02 > 0:54:09- But in everyday life, I wouldn't mind my air-traffic controller being...- On drugs?
0:54:09 > 0:54:12On drugs. On the drugs that will make them
0:54:12 > 0:54:14better at that kind of shape recognition.
0:54:14 > 0:54:15A surgeon or whatever...
0:54:15 > 0:54:18It sounds great until they are forced to do that,
0:54:18 > 0:54:22so what if you have a situation where lots of surgeons are doing it and
0:54:22 > 0:54:25then the hospital says, "If you want to be a surgeon,
0:54:25 > 0:54:29"you have to take these drugs?" That is more dodgy.
0:54:29 > 0:54:31There is the question of exams.
0:54:31 > 0:54:34You may want to keep everyone on the same level. It is fairer that way
0:54:34 > 0:54:36because what if, in the future,
0:54:36 > 0:54:39this stuff is available and only the rich people can afford it
0:54:39 > 0:54:41so they become cleverer or whatever else?
0:54:41 > 0:54:42But what would you have?
0:54:42 > 0:54:45Would you have a drug-testing lab at the start of every exam?
0:54:45 > 0:54:52- A little fingerprinting pinprick or something like that.- Everyone has to pee into a cup before they...
0:54:52 > 0:54:56That is the future. A little pinprick to see whether you're on...
0:54:56 > 0:55:01Depending on how many buckets they have taken from the exam room.
0:55:01 > 0:55:04There are so many enhancing things that you can do
0:55:04 > 0:55:05that cost nothing at all.
0:55:05 > 0:55:08For example, exercise is really good for the brain.
0:55:08 > 0:55:11For example, sleeping is very good for the brain.
0:55:11 > 0:55:14You're doing all these things... and fairly and easier.
0:55:14 > 0:55:16Banging on about exercise.
0:55:16 > 0:55:20- Like that's the answer to anything. - ..You have a very good diet.
0:55:20 > 0:55:25Stop it. We are not dealing in science fiction here(!)
0:55:25 > 0:55:28Diet, exercise and sleep(!)
0:55:28 > 0:55:30We're going to scan across the room.
0:55:30 > 0:55:33How many of you would take smart drugs?
0:55:37 > 0:55:39About 60% of the room.
0:55:39 > 0:55:43How many would approve of other people taking smart drugs?
0:55:45 > 0:55:48That's interesting. Different people raised their hands there.
0:55:48 > 0:55:51Earlier, Tali told us about her work on optimism.
0:55:51 > 0:55:55We're going to bring her back in. Tell us about the results.
0:56:01 > 0:56:07It is assessing a predetermined bias towards optimism in people.
0:56:07 > 0:56:11The puzzle was, how do we maintain these positive expectations,
0:56:11 > 0:56:16because we get information that is discouraging all the time?
0:56:16 > 0:56:17Our process was that
0:56:17 > 0:56:21we must learn more from good news than from bad news.
0:56:21 > 0:56:24So we go throughout life learning more from positive information than
0:56:24 > 0:56:29negative information, that will create this biased view of the world.
0:56:29 > 0:56:32- So we put together a study. - You tested all of our reporters.
0:56:32 > 0:56:37Helen, Mark and Alok are there. All three of them did this.
0:56:37 > 0:56:41- Were the results normal? - Two of them look normal.
0:56:41 > 0:56:43We can show it on screen now.
0:56:43 > 0:56:47We have two normal individuals on the left. I say normal, you know!
0:56:47 > 0:56:52They act like normal individuals, learn more from good than bad.
0:56:52 > 0:56:57The candidate for the magnetic hat is M3.
0:56:59 > 0:57:02This doesn't mean anything.
0:57:02 > 0:57:0680% of the people show the effect, 20% don't. Not all 20% are depressed.
0:57:06 > 0:57:09There's not anything wrong with them.
0:57:09 > 0:57:11If I had to choose which one of the three
0:57:11 > 0:57:13was most likely for the bad news,
0:57:13 > 0:57:17would it be the happy smiling one who has done the experiments,
0:57:17 > 0:57:19the one who has been all round the world
0:57:19 > 0:57:23looking at different treatments, or the one who wanted pandas to die?
0:57:24 > 0:57:28- And who's sat here.- I know. Is that Alok?
0:57:28 > 0:57:31I thought the same thing when I saw it.
0:57:33 > 0:57:35Maybe it was a panda dying.
0:57:35 > 0:57:40In fact, it was the guy who blended a dog's brain a few minutes ago.
0:57:40 > 0:57:45- With the flowery shirts and the cheery demeanour?- Yeah. - That is Mark.
0:57:45 > 0:57:47Are you OK? You are not feeling down about things?
0:57:47 > 0:57:50I'm an emotionally scarred individual, that's clear, as you can see.
0:57:50 > 0:57:54I don't think your flowery shirts are hiding anything any more.
0:57:54 > 0:57:57We want to thank all our guests. As ever, our reporters -
0:57:57 > 0:58:03Alok Jha, Tali Sharot and Mark Miodownik and Helen Czerski,
0:58:03 > 0:58:06our special guest Jessica Hynes,
0:58:06 > 0:58:09and our science guru Uta Frith, ladies and gentlemen.
0:58:12 > 0:58:15There is so much we have learned.
0:58:15 > 0:58:20We have learned how to move things with our minds, that you can
0:58:20 > 0:58:22disguise a fair amount of depression
0:58:22 > 0:58:24using only a flowery shirt and some Polish vodka,
0:58:24 > 0:58:27and we've learned that Alok Jha is on smart drugs.
0:58:27 > 0:58:30But I am naturally optimistic and I think he is going to beat it.
0:58:30 > 0:58:34That is all from us tonight on Science Club. We will see you again. Good night.
0:58:36 > 0:58:39MUSIC: "Crazy" by Gnarls Barkley
0:58:55 > 0:58:58Subtitles by Red Bee Media Ltd