0:00:02 > 0:00:04Watch this. I've been practising at least two months.
0:00:08 > 0:00:11Why won't my brain let me juggle?
0:00:37 > 0:00:39APPLAUSE
0:00:53 > 0:00:57Welcome to the 2011 Royal Institution Christmas lectures.
0:00:57 > 0:01:01I'm Bruce Hood. I'm a scientist, not a juggler, as you've just seen.
0:01:01 > 0:01:05In tonight's lecture we're going to look at how the brain works.
0:01:05 > 0:01:07I wasn't born to juggle and it is hard
0:01:07 > 0:01:13because it requires coordination, and if you lose concentration everything falls apart.
0:01:13 > 0:01:17But it is a skill you can acquire. All of us have the potential to gain new skills like juggling,
0:01:17 > 0:01:21or improve on the ones that we have.
0:01:21 > 0:01:24This is because we have brains that are flexible, that are adaptive.
0:01:24 > 0:01:27Brains that can learn.
0:01:27 > 0:01:30In tonight's lecture, we're going to look at how the brain learns
0:01:30 > 0:01:33because learning is what makes us intelligent.
0:01:33 > 0:01:36As human beings, much of who we are is how we learn.
0:01:36 > 0:01:41All the memories, all the actions, all the experiences shape us.
0:01:41 > 0:01:44There's a lot of stuff out there to learn and we have to make choices.
0:01:44 > 0:01:47So how does our brain make those decisions?
0:01:47 > 0:01:49Who's in charge here anyway?
0:01:49 > 0:01:53We're going to start by investigating a key aspect of this - our memory.
0:01:53 > 0:01:56Ladies and gentlemen, give a very warm welcome
0:01:56 > 0:01:58to someone who has one of the world's best memories.
0:01:58 > 0:02:03He has been world memory champion eight times. Dominic O'Brien!
0:02:03 > 0:02:04APPLAUSE
0:02:15 > 0:02:20Dominic, we gave out a pack of 52 cards to the children before the lecture started.
0:02:20 > 0:02:24We got them to write their name and birthday on that card.
0:02:24 > 0:02:28- Then we gave the same cards to you to memorise.- Yes.
0:02:28 > 0:02:31- So do you think you've been able to do that?- Well, in the time I had,
0:02:31 > 0:02:33there was a lot of information there.
0:02:33 > 0:02:35Three lots of sequences and dates
0:02:35 > 0:02:39so it's all jumbled up in my head but I think I've got a hold of it.
0:02:39 > 0:02:41OK, let's put you to the test.
0:02:41 > 0:02:44I am going to blindfold you, just so you don't recognise the children.
0:02:44 > 0:02:48- Would you mind taking the blindfold, and pop that on.- All right.
0:02:48 > 0:02:53When that's on, I'm going to get the children who had the playing cards earlier to stand up.
0:02:53 > 0:02:57So the children that had the playing cards, stand up, please.
0:03:01 > 0:03:07Oh, wow, OK. So I'm just going to select one at random. How about you?
0:03:07 > 0:03:11- Just hold up your card, say what the card is.- Nine of hearts.
0:03:11 > 0:03:16- The nine of hearts, Dominic. The nine of hearts.- The nine of hearts.
0:03:16 > 0:03:22- Is your name...Iona?- Yes.
0:03:22 > 0:03:29- And is your birthday the 30th... of September?- Yes.
0:03:29 > 0:03:34- Is that correct?- Yes. - OK, let's try another.
0:03:34 > 0:03:36Hold up your card.
0:03:36 > 0:03:41- Eight of clubs.- Eight of clubs. - Oh, we're doing it that way round.
0:03:41 > 0:03:43- OK. Eight of clubs. Is your name Nick?- Yes.
0:03:43 > 0:03:46And your birthday, I think, is in December, is that right?
0:03:46 > 0:03:52- Is it the 6th December?- Yes.- OK. - Good, well done.
0:03:54 > 0:03:58- Sir, with the white T-shirt. What's your card?- The three of clubs.
0:03:58 > 0:04:02- OK.- The three of clubs, let's start with your birthday.
0:04:02 > 0:04:07- I think you were born in J... January.- Yes.
0:04:07 > 0:04:10The 19th January, and your name is Charlie.
0:04:10 > 0:04:14- Yes.- Is that right? Round of applause.
0:04:14 > 0:04:15APPLAUSE
0:04:15 > 0:04:19OK, congratulations. That's amazing. We're going to have to find out how you do that.
0:04:19 > 0:04:22Would you mind coming back later on and explaining?
0:04:22 > 0:04:24I'll reveal some of the secrets later.
0:04:24 > 0:04:26A round of applause for Dominic!
0:04:26 > 0:04:28APPLAUSE
0:04:32 > 0:04:37Please take a seat, everyone. So, does Dominic have a special brain?
0:04:37 > 0:04:39Is he from outer space? No, he has a normal brain.
0:04:39 > 0:04:44And you all have the potential to train your brain to be as good, to acquire new information.
0:04:44 > 0:04:48But how do you go about this? Well, it's all to do with learning.
0:04:48 > 0:04:52Learning takes place whenever we remember experiences from the past.
0:04:52 > 0:04:54Each time you encounter an experience,
0:04:54 > 0:04:57this creates a pattern of electrical activity in your brain.
0:04:57 > 0:05:03Memories are patterns of electrical activity in the connections between the brain cells, called the neurons.
0:05:03 > 0:05:08When you repeat experiences, you're repeating the patterns of firing until it becomes familiar.
0:05:08 > 0:05:10Your brain is simply recognising similar events.
0:05:10 > 0:05:14This explains why you often don't notice things that you've encountered many times
0:05:14 > 0:05:18because your brain has got it well encoded and got used to it.
0:05:18 > 0:05:23But it also explains why you suddenly notice something that you didn't expect.
0:05:30 > 0:05:31LOUD BANG
0:05:31 > 0:05:32SURPRISED SHRIEKS
0:05:39 > 0:05:42LAUGHTER AND APPLAUSE
0:05:49 > 0:05:52So your brain was alerted to this new experience.
0:05:52 > 0:05:56Warning bells were set off, telling you to pay special attention
0:05:56 > 0:06:00to deal with what could be a potential problem.
0:06:00 > 0:06:02However, if I do it again - shall I?
0:06:04 > 0:06:07Yes? Ready?
0:06:09 > 0:06:10LOUD BANG
0:06:13 > 0:06:17So this time you expected it and were less bothered.
0:06:17 > 0:06:21Eventually, if I kept pressing it, you wouldn't respond at all.
0:06:21 > 0:06:25This is because you've learnt it. It's a form of learning called habituation.
0:06:25 > 0:06:29Your brain has become familiar with the event and you anticipate it.
0:06:29 > 0:06:33Even animals with very simple brains can learn through habituation
0:06:33 > 0:06:37and we know this learning is due to changing connections in the brain.
0:06:37 > 0:06:41But you don't have to be aware. Habituation is a type of learning that's unconscious,
0:06:41 > 0:06:42you don't have to think about it.
0:06:42 > 0:06:44The brain is simply processing
0:06:44 > 0:06:47and storing experiences without you even realising it.
0:06:47 > 0:06:51But what's remarkable is that this kind of unconscious learning
0:06:51 > 0:06:54is at the very heart of one of our most sophisticated
0:06:54 > 0:06:59and unique abilities as a species, our ability to learn language.
0:06:59 > 0:07:02If you think about it, we don't teach our babies to speak at first,
0:07:02 > 0:07:06and yet most babies learn their first words by their first birthdays.
0:07:06 > 0:07:09In fact, any baby has the potential to learn any language
0:07:09 > 0:07:12wherever it is raised in the world.
0:07:12 > 0:07:14Is the baby really trying to learn the language?
0:07:14 > 0:07:17I don't think so. I think their brains are programmed
0:07:17 > 0:07:22to rapidly encode the languages they hear, but this ability deteriorates as you get older.
0:07:22 > 0:07:24So I'm going to test this audience.
0:07:24 > 0:07:30Let's test how good you are at telling the difference between languages you may have never heard.
0:07:30 > 0:07:34First of all, listen to the sounds from the English language. This is me speaking.
0:07:34 > 0:07:36See if they're the same or different.
0:07:36 > 0:07:38Ba. Da.
0:07:38 > 0:07:41Are they the same? Hands up if you think they're the same.
0:07:41 > 0:07:44Hands up if you think they're different.
0:07:44 > 0:07:47OK, let's try these next two.
0:07:49 > 0:07:50TWO SIMILAR SOUNDS
0:07:50 > 0:07:53Are they the same?
0:07:53 > 0:07:55Or are they different?
0:07:56 > 0:07:59Now actually, do we have any Hindi speakers here?
0:08:01 > 0:08:05- Are they the same or different? - Different.- Your name is?- Preeta.
0:08:05 > 0:08:09- Preesal.- Preeta.- Preeta. What's the first word?
0:08:09 > 0:08:10SHE SAYS HINDI WORD
0:08:10 > 0:08:12Can you say it, we can't hear it very well?
0:08:12 > 0:08:15SHE SAYS HINDI WORD
0:08:15 > 0:08:17And the second one is...
0:08:17 > 0:08:19And what do they mean?
0:08:19 > 0:08:24- The first one means till tomorrow. - Till tomorrow.- Yeah, and the second one doesn't mean anything.
0:08:24 > 0:08:28It doesn't mean anything at all? It's not even a word?
0:08:28 > 0:08:30Can we hear it one more time?
0:08:30 > 0:08:32HINDI WORDS
0:08:32 > 0:08:37So the first sound means till, as in till tomorrow, and the second word is just nonsense.
0:08:37 > 0:08:41But to us, we can't hear the difference. It's quite remarkable.
0:08:41 > 0:08:44Unless you heard Hindi as a baby, you wouldn't know it.
0:08:44 > 0:08:50This ability to encode information and early experiences is called plasticity, brain plasticity,
0:08:50 > 0:08:52which comes from the Greek "to be moulded".
0:08:52 > 0:08:54So when you're born,
0:08:54 > 0:08:57you have almost all the neurons you'll ever have in your brain.
0:08:57 > 0:09:01There's about 100 billion of them, but they're not connected up yet.
0:09:01 > 0:09:04So let me show you with a diagram, a model of my brain.
0:09:06 > 0:09:10So this is a picture of me as a baby. Let's see if I can get it.
0:09:10 > 0:09:12- AUDIENCE: Ahhh!- Yes.
0:09:12 > 0:09:17It's my christening dress. As you can see, I'm very happy(!)
0:09:17 > 0:09:20It is actually me. Here's a model of my brain.
0:09:20 > 0:09:25Each one of these little nodes here, these are the neurons I was telling you about, the brain cells.
0:09:25 > 0:09:28Between the neurons are the connections, the dendrites,
0:09:28 > 0:09:31which are the ways the neurons talk to each other.
0:09:31 > 0:09:35When you're born as a newborn, there's very few connections.
0:09:35 > 0:09:39Now this is me at six months. Now don't laugh.
0:09:39 > 0:09:41LAUGHTER
0:09:42 > 0:09:47I knew that was coming! OK, now here's the brain model of my brain.
0:09:47 > 0:09:51Again, we have these same neurons,
0:09:51 > 0:09:54but there's actually many more connections now.
0:09:54 > 0:09:59It's as if the neurons are wiring themselves up. The brain is sending out the communications
0:09:59 > 0:10:01telling the brain cells to talk to each other.
0:10:01 > 0:10:04In fact, there's almost the same number of brain cells.
0:10:04 > 0:10:08You have almost all the brain cells you'll ever have, as a baby.
0:10:08 > 0:10:11Here's me as a three-year-old.
0:10:13 > 0:10:17There's something about me not wearing clothes, OK? I get it. It was hot, it was!
0:10:17 > 0:10:20Now look at the brain mould here.
0:10:20 > 0:10:23Again, we have the same number of brain cells,
0:10:23 > 0:10:27but the connections are much thicker because the brain cells are communicating.
0:10:27 > 0:10:30As they communicate, these connections become thicker.
0:10:30 > 0:10:34This connection, this thickening reflects the experience
0:10:34 > 0:10:40as the brain is moulding itself to the world around it.
0:10:40 > 0:10:43But whether it actually forms connections or not depends on experience.
0:10:43 > 0:10:48If you never experience events, the connections never come.
0:10:48 > 0:10:50This is because you lose them.
0:10:51 > 0:10:55Effectively... The brain, if it doesn't get the experience,
0:10:55 > 0:10:59prunes back those connections to make it more efficient.
0:10:59 > 0:11:02In this way, the brain is moulding itself
0:11:02 > 0:11:05and becoming much more tuned into the environment.
0:11:05 > 0:11:07Many aspects of pruning happen early in childhood,
0:11:07 > 0:11:11which is one of the reasons why brains are better when you're younger
0:11:11 > 0:11:13for learning new skills than older brains.
0:11:13 > 0:11:17This partly explains the saying, "It's hard to teach an old dog new tricks".
0:11:17 > 0:11:23When it comes to neural connections, the brain needs to keep them active or they wither away.
0:11:23 > 0:11:27In other words, you have to use them or you lose them.
0:11:27 > 0:11:32Someone mentioned earlier the urban myth that you only use 10% of your brain.
0:11:32 > 0:11:37It can't possibly be true because, if you weren't using those parts of your brain, they would wither away.
0:11:37 > 0:11:42And without 90% of your brain, you'd be in a lot of trouble.
0:11:42 > 0:11:46When early connections are formed, they can lead to long-term consequences.
0:11:46 > 0:11:48What happens when I play this...?
0:11:48 > 0:11:51GREENSLEEVES PLAYS
0:11:51 > 0:11:53Anybody else fancy an ice cream?
0:11:53 > 0:11:57Well to me, when I hear that, I think about ice cream
0:11:57 > 0:11:59and my mouth starts to water and salivate.
0:11:59 > 0:12:02That's because, when I was a child, I used to buy ice creams from a van,
0:12:02 > 0:12:05they used to play those sorts of jingles.
0:12:05 > 0:12:06So just the sound of that stays with me,
0:12:06 > 0:12:10and when I'm an adult now my mouth starts to water.
0:12:10 > 0:12:13Because I'm anticipating the ice cream I'm about to have.
0:12:13 > 0:12:19It's a classic Pavlovian response, named after the famous Russian scientist, Ivan Pavlov.
0:12:19 > 0:12:23Ivan Pavlov was working on the digestion system of dogs
0:12:23 > 0:12:26when he discovered that if you flashed a light or rang a bell
0:12:26 > 0:12:30at the same time you delivered the food, the dogs would associate
0:12:30 > 0:12:35the light to the food and begin to salivate, even though there was no food there.
0:12:35 > 0:12:41Pavlov proved that sights and sounds that don't normally signal food can be learned by repeated association
0:12:41 > 0:12:44to trigger our stomachs and mouths and make our mouths water.
0:12:44 > 0:12:47So the brain has learnt by associating different neural patterns,
0:12:47 > 0:12:50one thing should lead to another.
0:12:50 > 0:12:55This explains why you feel hungry when you're in the playground and you hear the dinner bell ringing.
0:12:55 > 0:12:57Salivating is an automatic behaviour.
0:12:57 > 0:13:01However, many behaviours, especially those in higher animals, aren't automatic.
0:13:01 > 0:13:06They can be shaped through training, so let's meet one of Britain's best examples of training.
0:13:06 > 0:13:10Ladies and gentlemen, a big round of applause for Morgan and Venetia.
0:13:10 > 0:13:11APPLAUSE
0:13:18 > 0:13:21- Good boy. Wait. - So this is Morgan.- Yes.
0:13:21 > 0:13:23- Let's see what Morgan can really do. - Right.
0:13:26 > 0:13:27Round.
0:13:28 > 0:13:30Round.
0:13:30 > 0:13:33Ready? Good.
0:13:35 > 0:13:36Good boy.
0:13:36 > 0:13:37Weave.
0:13:38 > 0:13:39Weave.
0:13:43 > 0:13:45Quick. Weave.
0:13:45 > 0:13:47Wiggle.
0:13:47 > 0:13:49Wiggle.
0:13:49 > 0:13:51Wiggle. Good.
0:13:58 > 0:14:02Walk. Come. Round. Middle.
0:14:16 > 0:14:18APPLAUSE
0:14:22 > 0:14:26- Very good.- Thank you.- So everyone would like to know,
0:14:26 > 0:14:30- what kind of breed is Morgan?- He's a border collie.- And how old is he?
0:14:30 > 0:14:33- Three-and-a-half.- Right, and you've trained him to dance, I take it?
0:14:33 > 0:14:36- Yes, from a puppy. - How do you do that?
0:14:36 > 0:14:41I use a clicker, and from eight weeks old we just teach him
0:14:41 > 0:14:46the basics of sit, give a paw, and any other commands.
0:14:46 > 0:14:51- Something very simple.- So when he hears the click, what do you do?
0:14:51 > 0:14:54While he's actually doing the process... Twist. CLICK
0:14:54 > 0:14:58You've got to do it while they're in the middle of the process
0:14:58 > 0:15:03rather than wait until the end. Twirly. Good boy.
0:15:03 > 0:15:07So Morgan has learned to associate the sound with the reward,
0:15:07 > 0:15:09and you can use this to shape his behaviour?
0:15:09 > 0:15:14Yes, yes, and once they've learned from the clicker, I use my voice,
0:15:14 > 0:15:17and I don't need to use the clicker after that.
0:15:17 > 0:15:20- He gets to know the commands. - That's fascinating.
0:15:20 > 0:15:22Can we give a big round of applause?
0:15:22 > 0:15:24APPLAUSE
0:15:32 > 0:15:35Well, that's one dog that can learn new tricks.
0:15:35 > 0:15:38Morgan learnt his amazing skills through training.
0:15:38 > 0:15:41I mean, after all, he'd never have taught himself to dance on his own.
0:15:41 > 0:15:46He's learnt this because Venetia has trained him with a clicker and association.
0:15:46 > 0:15:51Humans can also be trained, but as a social animal there's also other things that motivate our learning,
0:15:51 > 0:15:55such as rewards, seeking praise from other people.
0:15:55 > 0:15:59In fact, as humans, our behaviour is often motivated by our own personal goals.
0:15:59 > 0:16:03So the skills and information are stored as memories in our brain.
0:16:03 > 0:16:07Initially the first stage of storage is in the short-term memory.
0:16:07 > 0:16:10It's a sort of temporary holding bay, but there's a limit
0:16:10 > 0:16:14to how much information you can hold and how long you can hold it for.
0:16:14 > 0:16:16So let's test someone's short-term memory.
0:16:16 > 0:16:20Who wants to be a volunteer in a memory test?
0:16:20 > 0:16:24I think we're going to go for the gentleman in the orange.
0:16:24 > 0:16:26Would you like to come on down?
0:16:26 > 0:16:28APPLAUSE
0:16:35 > 0:16:39- So what's your name, sir?- I'm Tom. - And how old are you, Tom?
0:16:39 > 0:16:42- I'm 11.- OK, Tom. Would you like to take a seat?
0:16:42 > 0:16:44Because we're going to test your memory.
0:16:44 > 0:16:48We're going to show you a lot of items and I want you to remember as many as possible,
0:16:48 > 0:16:52and I will be assisted by Talia, who will keep track of all the items you've remembered.
0:16:52 > 0:16:56After you've seen them, I will ask you to recall as many as possible.
0:16:56 > 0:17:00- Do you think you're up to that?- I'll try.- Try your best. Are you ready?
0:17:00 > 0:17:04- Yep.- OK, I'll stand back and let's start the game.
0:17:06 > 0:17:07A pound coin.
0:17:08 > 0:17:10A diamond lattice.
0:17:12 > 0:17:14A skull.
0:17:14 > 0:17:16A cuddly toy.
0:17:16 > 0:17:18A hose.
0:17:20 > 0:17:22A pair of die.
0:17:24 > 0:17:27A broom.
0:17:27 > 0:17:28A hat.
0:17:30 > 0:17:32A ball.
0:17:32 > 0:17:34A red hat.
0:17:35 > 0:17:37A yellow bucket.
0:17:38 > 0:17:40A garden blaster thing.
0:17:40 > 0:17:41A kettle.
0:17:44 > 0:17:46A camcorder.
0:17:48 > 0:17:49A truck.
0:17:50 > 0:17:52A mirror.
0:17:53 > 0:17:54Juggling balls.
0:17:56 > 0:17:57An alarm clock.
0:17:59 > 0:18:00The world.
0:18:01 > 0:18:03A tyre.
0:18:03 > 0:18:05A member of the audience!
0:18:07 > 0:18:09OK, well done.
0:18:09 > 0:18:11I'm going to test your memory. OK, quiet everyone
0:18:11 > 0:18:14because this will be very hard. Are you ready?
0:18:14 > 0:18:17In 30 seconds, can you remember as many items as possible.
0:18:18 > 0:18:20- OK.- Ready?
0:18:20 > 0:18:22- Go.- A tie. A skull.
0:18:22 > 0:18:26A broom. Erm, a coin.
0:18:26 > 0:18:28- There was a member of the audience.- Yes.
0:18:30 > 0:18:32There was a kind of atom thing at the beginning.
0:18:32 > 0:18:35Atom thing at the beginning.
0:18:35 > 0:18:38Diamond lattice. 15 seconds.
0:18:38 > 0:18:40- There was a blower thing. - Blower thing. The odd thing.
0:18:40 > 0:18:43There was a...
0:18:47 > 0:18:50- It's really hard.- It's hard.
0:18:51 > 0:18:53Oh, well done! Didn't he do well?
0:18:53 > 0:18:55APPLAUSE
0:18:55 > 0:18:57I've been dying to say that!
0:19:00 > 0:19:02Will you return to your seat?
0:19:02 > 0:19:05OK, so let's see how Tom did.
0:19:05 > 0:19:06OK, let's turn it around.
0:19:08 > 0:19:10Now, this is very interesting.
0:19:10 > 0:19:16This is very typical for this kind of test. What Tom remembered was everything at the beginning
0:19:16 > 0:19:18because he'd just begun the test.
0:19:18 > 0:19:23He also remembered the item at the end, partly because it was funny,
0:19:23 > 0:19:26but also because it was the last item in the list.
0:19:26 > 0:19:30He forgot many things in the middle. The odd thing he remembered was a leaf blower,
0:19:30 > 0:19:32which is an odd thing to see.
0:19:32 > 0:19:36This reflects the fact that you tend to remember things right at the beginning and at the end,
0:19:36 > 0:19:41and odd things which are novel stand out like a sore thumb.
0:19:41 > 0:19:46So, other items like a cuddly toy, when we used to watch this programme,
0:19:46 > 0:19:49was always the thing people remembered. It's a strange thing to have.
0:19:49 > 0:19:52This is a very interesting learning lesson because,
0:19:52 > 0:19:57if you, for example, want to be remembered and you're taking part in an audition
0:19:57 > 0:19:58or you're trying to get a job,
0:19:58 > 0:20:01it's good to be at the beginning of the list or the end
0:20:01 > 0:20:05because we remember the people who start off the interview, and at the end.
0:20:05 > 0:20:09If you can't be at the beginning or the end, well just be outstanding because...
0:20:09 > 0:20:15- Hey! Stop! Thief!- What the...?! Oh I don't know, another problem tonight!
0:20:15 > 0:20:19Did anyone see that? How many of you saw that? Hands up if you saw that.
0:20:19 > 0:20:25OK, clearly we have some very dodgy characters around the Royal Institution Christmas lecture.
0:20:25 > 0:20:30I need to get on with the lecture. Where was I? Oh yes, memory.
0:20:30 > 0:20:34Memory of course can be easily distracted
0:20:34 > 0:20:37and it's not that good, quite poor.
0:20:37 > 0:20:41So, if our short-term memory is so poor and easily disrupted,
0:20:41 > 0:20:46how did our memory expert at the beginning of the lecture succeed in remembering all those cards?
0:20:46 > 0:20:49I mean, that's really quite remarkable.
0:20:49 > 0:20:54Well, the secret to his success is learning through organisation.
0:20:54 > 0:20:58Try this out. How many of you can remember this number...?
0:20:58 > 0:21:02191 4191.
0:21:02 > 0:21:05Hands up if you think you've got that. Let's test you out.
0:21:05 > 0:21:08I'm going to try you.
0:21:08 > 0:21:14- 191 4191.- OK, good. What about if I give you a second number?
0:21:14 > 0:21:17How about 819 391 945?
0:21:17 > 0:21:21819 315...?
0:21:21 > 0:21:24Anyone help him out?
0:21:24 > 0:21:27391 945.
0:21:27 > 0:21:31So the first one, what was the first number, by the way?
0:21:31 > 0:21:34- I've completely forgotten!- You see!
0:21:34 > 0:21:38This demonstrates how short-term memory is very limited,
0:21:38 > 0:21:41and when you have to remember items that are very similar
0:21:41 > 0:21:43you get confused and easily forget them.
0:21:43 > 0:21:46One way to improve that is to chunk them together
0:21:46 > 0:21:50so if we look up here, these are the numbers I was reading to you.
0:21:50 > 0:21:531914191819391945.
0:21:53 > 0:21:55Now, can anyone see some patterns?
0:21:55 > 0:21:58Let's just chunk them into smaller groups.
0:21:58 > 0:22:03There we've got 1914 1918 1939 1945.
0:22:03 > 0:22:07Is there any historians in the audience? What are those numbers?
0:22:07 > 0:22:10What do they stand for?
0:22:10 > 0:22:12- Shout it out. - AUDIENCE: The World Wars.
0:22:12 > 0:22:16That's right, they just happen to be the start and the end of the World Wars.
0:22:16 > 0:22:22Now, of course, not all numbers just happen to fall into place as being memorable,
0:22:22 > 0:22:27but you can organise information into more meaningful patterns to make them easier to remember.
0:22:27 > 0:22:31If they don't readily fall into a more memorable pattern,
0:22:31 > 0:22:36you can learn them to associate them with a pattern that's easier. This technique is called mnemonics.
0:22:36 > 0:22:39I've got one... Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain.
0:22:39 > 0:22:43Does anybody know what that is? Sir? The colours of the rainbow.
0:22:43 > 0:22:49- Has anyone got a mnemonic? Yes? With the hat.- Never Eat Shredded Wheat. - Never Eat Shredded Wheat.
0:22:49 > 0:22:54- What does Never Eat Shredded Wheat mean?- North East South West.
0:22:54 > 0:22:58So as you can see, if you organise difficult lists into more memorable phrases,
0:22:58 > 0:23:01they're much easier to record, or recall.
0:23:01 > 0:23:04That's because you can remember them much easier.
0:23:04 > 0:23:08This technique, even the word "mnemonics" is difficult to spell,
0:23:08 > 0:23:11but I've got a sentence that makes it easier.
0:23:11 > 0:23:15For example, if I use "my new experience memorising odd names is clearly selective",
0:23:15 > 0:23:18then you have how to spell the word mnemonics.
0:23:18 > 0:23:21So let's get back our memory expert, Dominic,
0:23:21 > 0:23:25to find out what he's been doing to make such an incredible memory of his.
0:23:25 > 0:23:27Welcome back, Dominic.
0:23:27 > 0:23:28APPLAUSE
0:23:33 > 0:23:38You've been listening to explanations about improving memory and how we can organise memory.
0:23:38 > 0:23:42- What's the secret of your amazing memory?- Exactly as you've been explaining.
0:23:42 > 0:23:46- I use mnemonics myself, Dominic's mnemonics.- Dominic's mnemonics!
0:23:46 > 0:23:50So I turn difficult information like playing cards, names, dates
0:23:50 > 0:23:54into colourful images and I also use journeys, sequences,
0:23:54 > 0:23:57to remember the order of whatever it is I'm trying to remember.
0:23:57 > 0:24:01For example, I use a golf course to remember all these names.
0:24:01 > 0:24:04I imagine them at each tee along the golf course.
0:24:04 > 0:24:07- So let's say we've got the jack of clubs.- Yes.
0:24:07 > 0:24:11And I've got to remember Kate is connected with this and her birthday is 20th October.
0:24:11 > 0:24:15So what I think about is an old girlfriend of mine called Kate, many years ago,
0:24:15 > 0:24:19and she's skiing on the first tee. Why is she skiing?
0:24:19 > 0:24:24Because I associate the jack of clubs with an old friend of mine who used to be a ski instructor.
0:24:24 > 0:24:26That's the first two bits of information.
0:24:26 > 0:24:31To remember the date, the 20th, I think of Barack Obama
0:24:31 > 0:24:37because the second letter of the alphabet is B and zero is 0 - BO.
0:24:37 > 0:24:40Not body odour, that's Barack Obama.
0:24:40 > 0:24:44And to remember October, I imagine him wrestling with an octopus.
0:24:44 > 0:24:48You've got to put it all together. It requires a bit of imagination and put it together
0:24:48 > 0:24:51but I had to do that 52 times.
0:24:51 > 0:24:54And that takes a lot of practise and a lot of organisation.
0:24:54 > 0:24:58Ladies and gentlemen, another big round of applause for Dominic.
0:24:58 > 0:24:59Thank you.
0:24:59 > 0:25:01APPLAUSE
0:25:05 > 0:25:09When you organise your memory like this, you're making it work for you,
0:25:09 > 0:25:12which is why we sometimes call it a working memory.
0:25:12 > 0:25:17By working our memory, we can prepare information for storage into long-term memory.
0:25:17 > 0:25:21This is really part of a system in this part of the brain that we call the hippocampus.
0:25:21 > 0:25:27I'm just going to take this brain apart to show you because it is inside the structure here.
0:25:27 > 0:25:30There we go. This is one hemisphere.
0:25:30 > 0:25:34This is the front part of the brain,
0:25:34 > 0:25:36and inside is all these internal structures.
0:25:36 > 0:25:39Let me just pop off the front of my brain here.
0:25:39 > 0:25:43This is the structure we're really interested in. Let's get this bit out.
0:25:43 > 0:25:46This is called the hippocampus.
0:25:46 > 0:25:50It's shaped a little bit like a seahorse, which is why it's called hippocampus,
0:25:50 > 0:25:54because that comes from the Greek word for seahorse.
0:25:54 > 0:25:56It's the hippocampus we think, well we know,
0:25:56 > 0:25:59is really where your long-term memories are stored.
0:25:59 > 0:26:02I'm not sure exactly how all the memories get encoded
0:26:02 > 0:26:06but we know this structure must be used because, for example,
0:26:06 > 0:26:10if you damage it you lose your long-term memories, and taxi drivers in London, for example,
0:26:10 > 0:26:13are very proud of their hippocampi, because there are two of them,
0:26:13 > 0:26:17because taxi drivers have enlarged hippocampi.
0:26:17 > 0:26:20Not only are they larger, but they're more active.
0:26:20 > 0:26:22We think this must be due to the fact that
0:26:22 > 0:26:26when they have to memorise the whole of the streets of London,
0:26:26 > 0:26:29you know, the Knowledge, they're encoding this information.
0:26:29 > 0:26:35What's remarkable is the hippocampus or the hippocampi are one of the few structures in the brain
0:26:35 > 0:26:38where you can actually grow new brain cells.
0:26:38 > 0:26:41When you damage this area, you lose your memories.
0:26:41 > 0:26:46The consequences of damaging your long-term memory can be quite devastating.
0:26:46 > 0:26:50I'm sure many of you may have some relatives who are starting to lose their memory
0:26:50 > 0:26:53and it can be a very devastating type of experience,
0:26:53 > 0:26:57because when you lose your memory you effectively lose your identity.
0:26:57 > 0:27:00Because who we are is really a sum of our memories.
0:27:00 > 0:27:03So let's consider our own memories.
0:27:03 > 0:27:07You guys, what about your autobiographical memories?
0:27:07 > 0:27:12What's the first thing you can remember? Hands up if you can remember being six years of age.
0:27:12 > 0:27:15Pretty good. Five?
0:27:15 > 0:27:18Keep them up. Four?
0:27:18 > 0:27:19Three?
0:27:20 > 0:27:22Two?
0:27:22 > 0:27:24One?
0:27:24 > 0:27:29We've got one person with a memory less than one. Do you remember what that was, by any chance?
0:27:29 > 0:27:32It was my first birthday and I had a party,
0:27:32 > 0:27:36and it was like my friends from when I was...
0:27:36 > 0:27:39It was your first birthday and you remember the party, is that right?
0:27:39 > 0:27:44- Yes.- Most of you put your hands down when I said 2 to 3 years of age.
0:27:44 > 0:27:49Why is it that very few of us can remember anything before our second or third birthday?
0:27:49 > 0:27:52It's not because babies don't have memories. We know they can learn
0:27:52 > 0:27:56so it can't be simply the fact they haven't got memory.
0:27:56 > 0:28:00It might be related to the fact the brain isn't very mature in a very young baby,
0:28:00 > 0:28:04but I think a more interesting possibility is that very young babies
0:28:04 > 0:28:07don't fully understand the world yet so it is difficult for them
0:28:07 > 0:28:10to organise their memories, their information, into useful memories.
0:28:10 > 0:28:15Because organisation is really important when it comes to storing these things.
0:28:15 > 0:28:16SIREN WAILS
0:28:18 > 0:28:19Hold on a second.
0:28:19 > 0:28:21Oh, I've just heard,
0:28:21 > 0:28:26the police have apprehended a suspect in the robbery of the soft toy.
0:28:26 > 0:28:28Do you remember the robbery we had just a moment ago?
0:28:28 > 0:28:31Hands up if you saw that robbery.
0:28:31 > 0:28:34Good, and you all got a good luck at the witness...
0:28:34 > 0:28:39Er, the suspect? OK. Yes, they're coming through now. So you think you can identify the suspect?
0:28:39 > 0:28:42Hands up if you think you can. That's almost all of you.
0:28:42 > 0:28:46Good, all right, let's test you out because the police need to do a line-up
0:28:46 > 0:28:51and you're going to have to pick out who the suspect is. OK? Bring them in, Sergeant.
0:28:51 > 0:28:54You 'orrible lot, get in here now!
0:28:54 > 0:28:59Form an orderly line, quick as you can. Thank you!
0:28:59 > 0:29:00All present and correct, sir.
0:29:00 > 0:29:04- Over to you, Professor.- Thank you very much, Sergeant.
0:29:04 > 0:29:07So, these are the suspects who are in the line-up.
0:29:07 > 0:29:09One of them committed the crime,
0:29:09 > 0:29:13so let's see if you can identify the criminal.
0:29:13 > 0:29:17I'm going to ask each suspect to step forward and then I want a show of hands if you think it's them.
0:29:17 > 0:29:21Will subject A step forward? Miss Behaving.
0:29:21 > 0:29:24How many of you think it is Miss Behaving?
0:29:24 > 0:29:28OK. Step back, please. Subject B, Miss Demeanour.
0:29:28 > 0:29:34Hmm. That's a pretty good show of hands. Subject C, Miss Placed.
0:29:34 > 0:29:40Not so many. Subject D. Miss Understood.
0:29:40 > 0:29:45Quite a few for Miss Understood. And subject E, Miss Take.
0:29:47 > 0:29:51So the majority of you thought it was B.
0:29:51 > 0:29:55That's very interesting. Not everyone agreed, but let's see if you were right.
0:29:55 > 0:29:59Will the real culprit step forward, please?
0:30:01 > 0:30:04It was subject A!
0:30:04 > 0:30:07Big round of applause for those who got subject A.
0:30:10 > 0:30:13- Take him away! - All right, you, you're nicked!
0:30:13 > 0:30:16The rest of you, sorry for the inconvenience. Be on your way.
0:30:16 > 0:30:18Get out of here.
0:30:18 > 0:30:20It was a set-up!
0:30:20 > 0:30:22Even though you got a good look at the thief
0:30:22 > 0:30:26and you thought you'd recognise them, our memory can be very poor.
0:30:26 > 0:30:30Studies show eyewitness testimonies are notoriously unreliable and this is quite important
0:30:30 > 0:30:34because in some countries, they use this technique to put people into prison,
0:30:34 > 0:30:38so we really have to question this as a major legal issue.
0:30:39 > 0:30:41So, memory's not like a photograph.
0:30:41 > 0:30:44It's not a picture in your mind that you can review -
0:30:44 > 0:30:46memories are much more fluid.
0:30:46 > 0:30:49And that was a test of face recognition, but I want to test
0:30:49 > 0:30:53you all, and those of you at home, with a different type of test -
0:30:53 > 0:30:55I want to test your memory for words.
0:30:55 > 0:30:57Again, everyone will be involved.
0:30:57 > 0:31:00I'm going to read out a list of words and I want you to try
0:31:00 > 0:31:03and concentrate and see if you can remember the list, OK?
0:31:03 > 0:31:05Simple enough? Let's start.
0:31:11 > 0:31:12Thorn.
0:31:13 > 0:31:15Thimble.
0:31:15 > 0:31:17Point.
0:31:17 > 0:31:19Pin.
0:31:19 > 0:31:20Eye.
0:31:20 > 0:31:21Sharp.
0:31:22 > 0:31:24Injection.
0:31:24 > 0:31:26Cloth.
0:31:26 > 0:31:28Haystack.
0:31:28 > 0:31:29Sewing.
0:31:29 > 0:31:32Syringe.
0:31:32 > 0:31:34Knitting. Hurt.
0:31:35 > 0:31:37Thread.
0:31:37 > 0:31:40Now let's test your memory.
0:31:40 > 0:31:42Hands up if you think I said the word thread.
0:31:44 > 0:31:47Very good. Hands up if I said the word banana.
0:31:50 > 0:31:52How about the word needle?
0:31:53 > 0:31:57Are you sure about the word needle? Hands up if you're sure I said needle.
0:31:59 > 0:32:02Well, you're in for a surprise.
0:32:05 > 0:32:08Here are the actual words I said,
0:32:08 > 0:32:11and nowhere on this list is the word needle.
0:32:11 > 0:32:13And yet, you're convinced that I said the word needle.
0:32:13 > 0:32:17I implanted a false memory, because the word needle was triggered
0:32:17 > 0:32:21by all these other words which are related to the word needle.
0:32:21 > 0:32:27So, in your brain, this association with the word needle was stimulated.
0:32:27 > 0:32:30So, what I did was I implanted a false memory.
0:32:30 > 0:32:33Every time you have to remember something, you have to reconstruct it,
0:32:33 > 0:32:37build it back from the fragments of information stored in the neural networks of your brain.
0:32:37 > 0:32:40We've shown that the brain can have false memories,
0:32:40 > 0:32:43which raises the original question we asked at the beginning of the lecture,
0:32:43 > 0:32:46because who's in control anyway?
0:32:46 > 0:32:49If your own memories can be wrong and you don't even realise it,
0:32:49 > 0:32:53and the memories are the key to your identity, well...who are you?
0:32:55 > 0:32:59That's a big question and philosophers have been thinking about this for a long time,
0:32:59 > 0:33:04but we know that the answer must lie with the brain.
0:33:04 > 0:33:06We know this because people can be changed
0:33:06 > 0:33:07when their brains get damaged.
0:33:10 > 0:33:12Back in 1838...
0:33:14 > 0:33:17TRAIN WHISTLES
0:33:17 > 0:33:19..Phineas Gage was working on a railroad as an engineer
0:33:19 > 0:33:23and was blasting the rocks with gunpowder to clear the path
0:33:23 > 0:33:27for the rail track when a colleague distracted him and he accidentally...
0:33:29 > 0:33:34..put the rod onto gunpowder and it shot the rod straight through
0:33:34 > 0:33:39his skull and out the top and landed 25 metres away.
0:33:39 > 0:33:44Now, remarkably, Phineas survived.
0:33:45 > 0:33:48Now, according to the records,
0:33:48 > 0:33:51he'd lost the front part of his brain.
0:33:51 > 0:33:54Before the accident, he'd been a mild-mannered man,
0:33:54 > 0:33:57but afterwards his personality changed.
0:33:57 > 0:34:01He swore more frequently, he became more irritable,
0:34:01 > 0:34:04and he became emotionally unstable.
0:34:04 > 0:34:08In short, Phineas Gage was no longer Phineas Gage.
0:34:08 > 0:34:12The region that had been damaged was the frontal lobes
0:34:12 > 0:34:16and his accident provided a clue to what the frontal lobes do
0:34:16 > 0:34:20and how important they are to our personality and identity.
0:34:20 > 0:34:25The frontal lobes are also responsible for flexible thinking and creativity
0:34:25 > 0:34:29and regulating behaviours that coordinate our activities.
0:34:29 > 0:34:32The frontal lobes are in effect delegating, prioritising jobs,
0:34:32 > 0:34:36like a chief in your head office, but of course there's no-one in there.
0:34:36 > 0:34:39It just feels as if someone is in there making decisions,
0:34:39 > 0:34:43and that's because our brain generates a sense of our self,
0:34:43 > 0:34:47the person in control, the YOU in your head.
0:34:47 > 0:34:51You don't have to have a metal rod shot through your head
0:34:51 > 0:34:53to see the effects of frontal lobe damage.
0:34:53 > 0:34:57Frontal lobes can be impaired by disease and drugs,
0:34:57 > 0:35:00and one of the most commonly used drugs is alcohol.
0:35:00 > 0:35:02Who wants to try out the effects of alcohol?
0:35:03 > 0:35:06That's the quickest response I've had for a long time!
0:35:06 > 0:35:09I'm going to choose...sir, would you come down?
0:35:16 > 0:35:19Let's get someone from this side. Any more volunteers?
0:35:20 > 0:35:23Young lady, come on down.
0:35:27 > 0:35:31Young lady, come this side. OK, let's find out who you are.
0:35:31 > 0:35:34- I'm Flory.- Flory, OK. And how old are you?
0:35:34 > 0:35:3611.
0:35:36 > 0:35:3811?
0:35:38 > 0:35:39And you want to drink alcohol?
0:35:39 > 0:35:41- LAUGHTER - OK, and you are?
0:35:41 > 0:35:44- Oliver. - Oliver, and how old are you?- 13.
0:35:44 > 0:35:4713... Ah, we have a bit of a problem, don't we?
0:35:47 > 0:35:50We can't give you alcohol in this country.
0:35:50 > 0:35:52- You were hoping for some, yes? - LAUGHTER
0:35:52 > 0:35:55Yes? Right, well, OK, we'll have to improvise.
0:35:55 > 0:36:00Let's imagine... What I'll do, let me take you to Paris to a cafe, OK?
0:36:00 > 0:36:03Join me in this cafe. If you come this side.
0:36:03 > 0:36:06Flory, here. Oliver, here.
0:36:06 > 0:36:09- IN FRENCH ACCENT: - Now, I'll be your wine waiter.
0:36:09 > 0:36:10And, sir,
0:36:10 > 0:36:13I am...going to pour you some wine
0:36:13 > 0:36:15and I want you to celebrate.
0:36:18 > 0:36:20If I just pour the wine here.
0:36:20 > 0:36:23Would sir like to try the wine, make sure it's tasty?
0:36:23 > 0:36:27It's not wine, of course, it's apple juice, but let's go for it.
0:36:27 > 0:36:31Is it good enough? Right, it's obviously good enough to drink.
0:36:31 > 0:36:34Would you like to drink some as well? OK.
0:36:34 > 0:36:38So that's very easy, isn't it? Now, let's imagine this is wine
0:36:38 > 0:36:41and you've had a few more bottles, OK?
0:36:41 > 0:36:44Let's see what the effects of alcohol could do to your coordination.
0:36:44 > 0:36:47Would you like to pop on these goggles?
0:36:47 > 0:36:50Sir? If I may, they're a little bit...
0:36:50 > 0:36:54Are they tight enough for you? OK.
0:36:54 > 0:36:57All right. Now, would you like to again have a glass of your wine?
0:36:57 > 0:37:00LAUGHTER
0:37:02 > 0:37:04OK, no, that's the bottle! OK, oh, all right!
0:37:04 > 0:37:07Have a little drink again.
0:37:07 > 0:37:11Maybe you'd like to say cheers and clink your glasses together? Oh, OK!
0:37:11 > 0:37:14- LAUGHTER - Oh, all right, OK.
0:37:14 > 0:37:18You've both had a bit too much to drink. Well done, round of applause!
0:37:27 > 0:37:30Let's see if we can give the viewers at home and the audience what
0:37:30 > 0:37:33an impression of wearing these goggles is really like.
0:37:33 > 0:37:36You see, it's distorting everything, isn't it?
0:37:36 > 0:37:39And as you try to reach your glass,
0:37:39 > 0:37:43you lose all your coordination.
0:37:43 > 0:37:46The goggles are really producing a distortion of your vision.
0:37:46 > 0:37:48Thank you very much, David.
0:37:48 > 0:37:51It doesn't make you drunk, it just creates what it's like
0:37:51 > 0:37:54to be drunk, as far as your vision's concerned.
0:37:54 > 0:37:58But alcohol doesn't just affect vision, it affects your movement, your decision-making,
0:37:58 > 0:38:01all of your coordination is disrupted by that.
0:38:01 > 0:38:04And that's why drinking, of course, is very dangerous
0:38:04 > 0:38:07if you're controlling a large machine like a car
0:38:07 > 0:38:11because your coordination, and also your judgment, is impaired.
0:38:11 > 0:38:14Now, we also know that frontal lobes are the last part
0:38:14 > 0:38:18of your brain to mature and this explains why often very young
0:38:18 > 0:38:23children can be very uncoordinated and very impulsive in many ways.
0:38:23 > 0:38:26As teenagers, you're currently also experiencing some of the most
0:38:26 > 0:38:31dramatic rewiring of your frontal lobes so your control systems aren't yet up to speed,
0:38:31 > 0:38:34but don't worry, you guys are coming up to your prime.
0:38:34 > 0:38:38When you get to my age, it's all downhill from here.
0:38:38 > 0:38:42I'm afraid so. The frontal lobes are not just responsible for judgment and control,
0:38:42 > 0:38:47but they also allow you to see into the future, or at least imagine what a future might be like.
0:38:47 > 0:38:50So let's see if any of you can tell the future,
0:38:50 > 0:38:54because I have a tale of terror to tell and I need a fortune teller.
0:38:54 > 0:38:56LIGHTNING
0:38:56 > 0:38:59And I want to take you to...
0:38:59 > 0:39:01Zombie Island.
0:39:02 > 0:39:05OK, so prepare to be amazed.
0:39:05 > 0:39:09So we selected some volunteers earlier on and here they are.
0:39:09 > 0:39:11Hello, guys, how are you doing?
0:39:11 > 0:39:14- So, who's going to be my research assistant? Your name is?- Liam.
0:39:14 > 0:39:17- Liam, you're going to be Igor for tonight, OK?- Yeah.
0:39:17 > 0:39:19We have a zombie. Who are you?
0:39:19 > 0:39:22- Louise.- This is Louise, the zombie,
0:39:22 > 0:39:26- and you're a typical child, aren't you?- Yeah.- What are you, typical child?- Jessica.
0:39:26 > 0:39:29Jessica will be our typical child. And you're a bar of chocolate.
0:39:29 > 0:39:33- Who are you?- Alice. - Alice is our bar of chocolate.
0:39:33 > 0:39:38Now, Igor, you're my trusty research assistant, aren't you?
0:39:38 > 0:39:41I need you to transport all the bars of chocolate and the children
0:39:41 > 0:39:45and zombies to my laboratory, which is over on Zombie Island there.
0:39:45 > 0:39:49Let's take all the items from my laboratory and stand over there.
0:39:49 > 0:39:52OK, you stand there. OK.
0:39:52 > 0:39:54Now, what we have to do here,
0:39:54 > 0:39:56this is a real task and a real problem
0:39:56 > 0:40:02where Igor has to use his frontal lobes to figure out and solve the problem.
0:40:02 > 0:40:03Because the problem is, Igor,
0:40:03 > 0:40:07you can only carry one person at a time, or one zombie
0:40:07 > 0:40:08or one bar of chocolate
0:40:08 > 0:40:10over to my island.
0:40:10 > 0:40:14So you must transport it on the raft and get it over to there.
0:40:14 > 0:40:17The problem is, you can't leave children with chocolate
0:40:17 > 0:40:19because children eat the chocolate
0:40:19 > 0:40:22and you can't leave the zombie alone with the child
0:40:22 > 0:40:23because what do zombies eat?
0:40:25 > 0:40:26Brains!
0:40:26 > 0:40:29OK, so, remember. Don't muck up.
0:40:29 > 0:40:32Don't leave them together if they'll eat each other.
0:40:32 > 0:40:33- You've got it?- Yep.
0:40:33 > 0:40:36OK, so let's see how Igor gets on. He's got to figure this problem out.
0:40:36 > 0:40:39Who are you going to bring over first of all on the raft?
0:40:39 > 0:40:41- The child.- Let's see you do it, then.
0:40:41 > 0:40:44Pop on the child, and we'll give you some help here.
0:40:44 > 0:40:47Are you thinking the solution, are you working it out in your heads?
0:40:47 > 0:40:50See if Igor's going to get it right.
0:40:50 > 0:40:51Here we go.
0:40:52 > 0:40:54OK. So that's the right solution,
0:40:54 > 0:40:57because you left the zombie with the chocolate.
0:40:57 > 0:41:00Now, Igor, what are you going to get for me next?
0:41:02 > 0:41:04- The chocolate.- Chocolate, OK.
0:41:06 > 0:41:08You see how he's working it out?
0:41:08 > 0:41:10He's thinking how to solve the problem.
0:41:14 > 0:41:16THUNDER CRASHES
0:41:16 > 0:41:17Very good.
0:41:18 > 0:41:20Now, Igor.
0:41:20 > 0:41:22You left something on the mainland.
0:41:22 > 0:41:23I need the rest.
0:41:23 > 0:41:25Can you go and get me my zombies?
0:41:25 > 0:41:27Can I bring back the child?
0:41:27 > 0:41:29OK. That seems a good idea.
0:41:32 > 0:41:34OK. On you pop.
0:41:34 > 0:41:36Safely down. Very good.
0:41:42 > 0:41:44- Is he getting it right?- Yes.- Yep?
0:41:44 > 0:41:47Very good. Come on, Igor.
0:41:47 > 0:41:48What are you going to bring next?
0:41:48 > 0:41:50- The zombie.- The zombie?
0:41:52 > 0:41:53THUNDER CRASHES
0:41:53 > 0:41:56There we go. Well done, Igor.
0:41:56 > 0:41:59Of course, all you need left is...
0:42:00 > 0:42:02There we go. The child.
0:42:02 > 0:42:06I think it's a solution there. Big round of applause. Well done.
0:42:06 > 0:42:07APPLAUSE
0:42:12 > 0:42:15Let's come back with zombie. There we go. OK.
0:42:15 > 0:42:16We can let you go. Thank you.
0:42:16 > 0:42:20So what they were doing there is using their frontal lobes,
0:42:20 > 0:42:23because they had to anticipate the consequences of the actions.
0:42:23 > 0:42:27If a person with frontal lobe damage was trying to solve Zombie Island,
0:42:27 > 0:42:30they would muck up and probably leave the wrong combination
0:42:30 > 0:42:33because they can't anticipate what's going to happen next.
0:42:33 > 0:42:37It requires planning. Of course, planning becomes more difficult
0:42:37 > 0:42:39when you do more than one thing at the same time,
0:42:39 > 0:42:41especially if you're under time pressure.
0:42:41 > 0:42:44You need to be able to focus your attention on the task at hand
0:42:44 > 0:42:47because complicated tasks require coordination.
0:42:47 > 0:42:50Now, this coordination enables us
0:42:50 > 0:42:52to do more than one thing at the same time,
0:42:52 > 0:42:55such as texting your friends or watching television.
0:42:55 > 0:42:58So long as the different tasks do not compete
0:42:58 > 0:43:02for the same neural parts of your brain, everything should be OK.
0:43:02 > 0:43:04But what happens if they do?
0:43:04 > 0:43:07Can I get four volunteers for the next one?
0:43:07 > 0:43:09OK, let's get some people from the back here.
0:43:09 > 0:43:12Uh, lady with the stripy top on the end there.
0:43:12 > 0:43:13OK, down you come.
0:43:13 > 0:43:16Uh, chap there on the end there. Down you come.
0:43:16 > 0:43:18Let's choose someone from over here.
0:43:18 > 0:43:21Uh, sir with the red top, down you come.
0:43:21 > 0:43:24And let's get someone...
0:43:24 > 0:43:27Lady there, with the heart on your sleeve. There we go.
0:43:27 > 0:43:30Come on down. Well done. So, who are you?
0:43:30 > 0:43:31APPLAUSE
0:43:33 > 0:43:35Stand in front of each chair.
0:43:35 > 0:43:37You stand there.
0:43:37 > 0:43:39Let's find out who our guests are, first of all.
0:43:39 > 0:43:41- Nick.- Nick.
0:43:41 > 0:43:42- Emma.- Emma.
0:43:42 > 0:43:44- Sam.- Sam.- Isabel.
0:43:44 > 0:43:45Isabel. OK.
0:43:45 > 0:43:49Why don't you all have a seat, please? Make yourself comfortable.
0:43:49 > 0:43:52This is a very simple test of control of your frontal lobes.
0:43:52 > 0:43:55I want you to just, with your left leg,
0:43:55 > 0:43:57lift it up and rotate it clockwise.
0:43:57 > 0:43:59You can try this at home, everyone.
0:43:59 > 0:44:03Just rotate your legs clockwise.
0:44:03 > 0:44:04In big circles.
0:44:04 > 0:44:07Come on, let's see big circles.
0:44:07 > 0:44:10Clockwise. There we go. You've got it all now? Very good.
0:44:10 > 0:44:12Very easy. OK, now, stop.
0:44:12 > 0:44:13Now, with your left hand,
0:44:13 > 0:44:16I want you to draw the number six.
0:44:16 > 0:44:19OK? That's quite easy, isn't it?
0:44:19 > 0:44:22Now, look what happens when we put these things together.
0:44:22 > 0:44:24Let's start off with your left leg,
0:44:24 > 0:44:25clockwise.
0:44:25 > 0:44:27Everyone can have a go.
0:44:27 > 0:44:29Now, draw the letter six.
0:44:31 > 0:44:33LAUGHTER
0:44:34 > 0:44:37It looks like it's all falling to pieces, isn't it?
0:44:37 > 0:44:39It's very, very hard.
0:44:39 > 0:44:42Yeah? How are you finding it?
0:44:44 > 0:44:46OK, very good. Round of applause for our guests.
0:44:46 > 0:44:48Thank you very much, volunteers.
0:44:48 > 0:44:50APPLAUSE
0:44:52 > 0:44:56OK, we're going to make this work. This is called interference.
0:44:56 > 0:45:00It's because different parts of the body, when you move them,
0:45:00 > 0:45:01you're trying to coordinate them.
0:45:01 > 0:45:04They're both trying to work with the same area
0:45:04 > 0:45:05so moving your leg in one direction
0:45:05 > 0:45:08interferes with moving your hands in the opposite direction.
0:45:08 > 0:45:11You need your frontal lobes to be able to coordinate.
0:45:11 > 0:45:13It's hard to coordinate those movements.
0:45:13 > 0:45:16But hark! I think I hear a man who can.
0:45:16 > 0:45:19MUSIC: HARMONICA, BANJO, DRUM
0:45:35 > 0:45:36Hello, sir!
0:45:36 > 0:45:38Hello!
0:45:38 > 0:45:41- Big round of applause! - APPLAUSE
0:45:41 > 0:45:43Let me introduce Jake Rodriguez,
0:45:43 > 0:45:46a one-man band. Jake, how long have you been playing this one-man band?
0:45:46 > 0:45:50- I did my first one-man band when I was about 18.- 18?
0:45:50 > 0:45:52- Yes.- And how many instruments do you have now?
0:45:52 > 0:45:54Erm... I've got two jingle bells...
0:45:54 > 0:45:56- Two jingle bells. - DRUM BANGS
0:45:56 > 0:45:58That foot's attached to the bass pedal.
0:45:58 > 0:46:02HORN TOOTS This one's attached to, uh, the...
0:46:02 > 0:46:04the cymbals on the top and the tambourine.
0:46:04 > 0:46:07So that's one, two, three, four...five.
0:46:07 > 0:46:10Banjo, harmonica, couple of these.
0:46:10 > 0:46:12Oh, it's about eight, nine, ten, round about that.
0:46:12 > 0:46:13Horns and things.
0:46:13 > 0:46:16Eight, nine or ten instruments? Obviously when you learnt them,
0:46:16 > 0:46:21did you start with all of them, or did you pick them up one at a time?
0:46:21 > 0:46:24Um, yes. Especially the horn,
0:46:24 > 0:46:27took a lot of work, that one, to get that together.
0:46:27 > 0:46:31And do you find, when you think about what you're doing,
0:46:31 > 0:46:34does it get complicated? Do you just go for the rhythm? How do you do it?
0:46:34 > 0:46:39- Well, it's quite instinctive to do a walking rhythm.- Right.
0:46:39 > 0:46:44- What's harder is to add a few more bits to it.- Right.
0:46:44 > 0:46:48So, if you get yourself in a bit of a pickle,
0:46:48 > 0:46:52you've got to be playing at the same time and unpickling your head
0:46:52 > 0:46:55- at the same time.- I've got it. - That's not the hardest thing.
0:46:55 > 0:46:59So the automatic things, you don't have to think about, like walking,
0:46:59 > 0:47:02- so that's easy.- Yes.- And things which need a lot of thought,
0:47:02 > 0:47:06- they require more of your frontal lobes working, is that right?- Yes.
0:47:06 > 0:47:08Give a big round of applause to Jake Rodriguez.
0:47:08 > 0:47:10APPLAUSE
0:47:10 > 0:47:11MUSIC RESUMES
0:47:17 > 0:47:19HORN HONKS
0:47:19 > 0:47:21LAUGHTER
0:47:21 > 0:47:24He wouldn't make a very good robber, would he?
0:47:24 > 0:47:26Jake coordinated all these through practice.
0:47:26 > 0:47:28He was using his frontal lobes.
0:47:28 > 0:47:31Things which didn't need much thought, like walking,
0:47:31 > 0:47:34he didn't have to really monitor or consciously control,
0:47:34 > 0:47:37and all the other things, he had to really pay attention
0:47:37 > 0:47:38to make them work together.
0:47:38 > 0:47:42So when he gets really good at this, he doesn't have to think about it.
0:47:42 > 0:47:44Some activities are not under conscious control,
0:47:44 > 0:47:47like breathing and walking. Other activities,
0:47:47 > 0:47:50like doing your homework and sitting in front of the television,
0:47:50 > 0:47:53that requires the executives in your frontal lobes,
0:47:53 > 0:47:55when you have to concentrate.
0:47:55 > 0:47:59But in some cases your brain has to block out information too.
0:47:59 > 0:48:01When you stop yourself doing something,
0:48:01 > 0:48:05you have to make a real effort, especially if the behaviour is automatic.
0:48:05 > 0:48:07In other words, not doing something
0:48:07 > 0:48:10often requires you doing something.
0:48:10 > 0:48:13And that's what your frontal lobes are doing.
0:48:13 > 0:48:16So let's see if all of you can stop doing a very automatic behaviour
0:48:16 > 0:48:19using your frontal lobes and mental effort.
0:48:19 > 0:48:23For this test, I want you to turn to the person next to you.
0:48:23 > 0:48:25I want you to try and stare at them without blinking,
0:48:25 > 0:48:29and I want you to take turns trying to make them blink
0:48:29 > 0:48:32by simply poking their eyes.
0:48:32 > 0:48:34We'll try this. OK, you try and stare.
0:48:34 > 0:48:36And...try and not stare.
0:48:36 > 0:48:39There we go. OK. See if you can break their stares.
0:48:39 > 0:48:42OK. OK.
0:48:42 > 0:48:44What you'll notice
0:48:44 > 0:48:47is that, actually, it's really quite hard to do.
0:48:47 > 0:48:51Some of them, some of you are very good at this. One of the reasons,
0:48:51 > 0:48:54typically, if you're used to putting mascara on
0:48:54 > 0:48:55or anything near your eyes,
0:48:55 > 0:48:59you don't have a problem. Or if you have contact lenses,
0:48:59 > 0:49:02you often stick these in your eye. But if you don't do this often,
0:49:02 > 0:49:05it's difficult to avoid, because that blink is a reflex.
0:49:05 > 0:49:08That's the brain trying to protect your eyes
0:49:08 > 0:49:09from anything damaging them.
0:49:09 > 0:49:12And that requires conscious effort to try and stop it.
0:49:12 > 0:49:14It's not just reflexes if you think about it.
0:49:14 > 0:49:16The world is full of distractions.
0:49:16 > 0:49:20It's like being a kid in a candy store. There are too many things
0:49:20 > 0:49:21trying to grab your attention.
0:49:21 > 0:49:23Sometimes, we need the ability
0:49:23 > 0:49:26to stop doing one thing in order to do something else.
0:49:26 > 0:49:28The frontal lobe has to work out
0:49:28 > 0:49:30which bits of information to block out.
0:49:30 > 0:49:32So let me try another test with you.
0:49:32 > 0:49:36This is something that's going to be a surprisingly difficult task,
0:49:36 > 0:49:38and again, you can try this at home.
0:49:38 > 0:49:41In this task, I want you just to read the colour of the ink.
0:49:41 > 0:49:43I don't want you to read the word.
0:49:43 > 0:49:46And I want you to do it as fast as you possibly can.
0:49:46 > 0:49:48So let's see if you're ready yet.
0:49:48 > 0:49:50- Go.- Red!
0:49:50 > 0:49:51Green!
0:49:51 > 0:49:52Blue!
0:49:52 > 0:49:53Green!
0:49:53 > 0:49:54Red!
0:49:54 > 0:49:55Blue!
0:49:55 > 0:49:58- Black...- Black, very good!
0:49:58 > 0:50:01Very good. That wasn't bad, actually. So let's try that again.
0:50:01 > 0:50:03I'll try and go a bit faster.
0:50:03 > 0:50:05Red!
0:50:05 > 0:50:06Blue!
0:50:06 > 0:50:07Red!
0:50:07 > 0:50:09Green! Green!
0:50:09 > 0:50:10Blue!
0:50:10 > 0:50:11Black!
0:50:11 > 0:50:13LAUGHTER
0:50:13 > 0:50:15Royal Institution crowd.
0:50:15 > 0:50:16Very smart. OK.
0:50:16 > 0:50:19So you're really good at this, aren't you? OK, ready?
0:50:20 > 0:50:22Blue!
0:50:22 > 0:50:24Red! Green!
0:50:24 > 0:50:25Red! Blue!
0:50:25 > 0:50:26Green!
0:50:26 > 0:50:28Black!
0:50:28 > 0:50:33Well, I found it very hard, but you did very well, I must confess.
0:50:33 > 0:50:34APPLAUSE
0:50:34 > 0:50:37Give yourselves a round of applause.
0:50:40 > 0:50:41That's called a Stroop test
0:50:41 > 0:50:43and a Stroop test reveals that
0:50:43 > 0:50:46reading is such an automatic behaviour,
0:50:46 > 0:50:49when you're very good at it, you don't think about it much.
0:50:49 > 0:50:52So when you see the word written in one colour,
0:50:52 > 0:50:55you tend to read the word, not say the colour of the ink,
0:50:55 > 0:50:56which you don't normally do.
0:50:56 > 0:50:59And if you have damage to your frontal lobe,
0:50:59 > 0:51:02it's very difficult to do the Stroop test
0:51:02 > 0:51:05because it reveals that this part is controlling behaviours.
0:51:05 > 0:51:08So our frontal lobes are important for vigilance and attention.
0:51:08 > 0:51:11Throughout evolution, we've had to look out for danger.
0:51:11 > 0:51:14In the olden days, it was things like sabre-tooth tigers.
0:51:14 > 0:51:18Today, it's Jaguars travelling at 40mph up Mayfair.
0:51:18 > 0:51:21Avoiding danger requires attention.
0:51:21 > 0:51:23When not paying attention,
0:51:23 > 0:51:27you can easily miss things that are right in front of your very eyes.
0:51:27 > 0:51:31So, I'm going to show you a scene outside San Francisco.
0:51:31 > 0:51:33I want you to watch the scene.
0:51:33 > 0:51:35Does anyone notice anything different here?
0:51:37 > 0:51:38Let's see.
0:51:38 > 0:51:42Does it look like the same scene to you, each time it flicks on?
0:51:42 > 0:51:45Put your hands up if you think it's the same scene.
0:51:45 > 0:51:48Yeah. Oh, yes, no, yes.
0:51:48 > 0:51:50It's the same thing, isn't it?
0:51:50 > 0:51:52Or is it? Are you sure?
0:51:53 > 0:51:56Well, let me show you what happens when I remove the blink.
0:51:56 > 0:51:59There we go. That's what's actually happening.
0:51:59 > 0:52:01You can see now that when I take the blink away,
0:52:01 > 0:52:04every frame has a different change.
0:52:04 > 0:52:07Things you would never believe that you would ever miss.
0:52:07 > 0:52:09For example, there goes...the tree!
0:52:09 > 0:52:11SURPRISED GASPS
0:52:11 > 0:52:13And then, when I put the blank in,
0:52:13 > 0:52:16you no longer see the changes. Look.
0:52:19 > 0:52:22Isn't that remarkable?
0:52:23 > 0:52:25And then I put it back in again.
0:52:28 > 0:52:30There they go.
0:52:30 > 0:52:34This is really a very strong proof that if you're not paying attention,
0:52:34 > 0:52:37you miss things happening right in front of your eyes.
0:52:37 > 0:52:38It's called change blindness.
0:52:38 > 0:52:41Every time your world disappears in the blink of an eye,
0:52:41 > 0:52:43your brain doesn't notice anything different
0:52:43 > 0:52:47unless you pay special attention. Your brain is regulating behaviour,
0:52:47 > 0:52:49deciding what we pay attention to,
0:52:49 > 0:52:51how we learn and what we remember,
0:52:51 > 0:52:53all without us even realising.
0:52:53 > 0:52:57We started this lecture with the question "Who's in charge?"
0:52:57 > 0:52:59And actually, I'm still not really sure.
0:52:59 > 0:53:01Is it my memory? My frontal lobes?
0:53:01 > 0:53:03They all play an important part,
0:53:03 > 0:53:06but there is no individual "me" taking control.
0:53:06 > 0:53:09So let's put everything together that we've learnt tonight
0:53:09 > 0:53:11into one final demonstration.
0:53:11 > 0:53:13I began with juggling, not very good,
0:53:13 > 0:53:16but I'd like to introduce you to some really great jugglers
0:53:16 > 0:53:18all the way from Croydon.
0:53:18 > 0:53:20Ladies and gentlemen, Croydon Juggling Club.
0:53:20 > 0:53:22APPLAUSE
0:53:22 > 0:53:25CIRCUS MUSIC
0:53:36 > 0:53:37OK, right.
0:53:37 > 0:53:42So, I'm going to get the audience to try out their frontal lobes here.
0:53:42 > 0:53:44I'm going to test them on a task of concentration.
0:53:44 > 0:53:47- To juggle takes a lot of concentration.- Absolutely.
0:53:47 > 0:53:51Can you show us a single juggle where you toss the orange batons?
0:53:51 > 0:53:55And I want you to count the number of times they toss, OK?
0:53:55 > 0:53:58So let's see, give us an example of this.
0:53:58 > 0:54:01One. Two.
0:54:01 > 0:54:02Three.
0:54:02 > 0:54:04Four.
0:54:04 > 0:54:06Five. OK, six.
0:54:06 > 0:54:08Can we stop there a moment? That's the task for tonight.
0:54:08 > 0:54:11I want you to count the number of times the baton passes.
0:54:11 > 0:54:14I want to find the person who has the best memory.
0:54:14 > 0:54:17The best observation skills, the best vigilance.
0:54:17 > 0:54:19Keep the answer to yourself. At the same time,
0:54:19 > 0:54:22I'll get the back jugglers to juggle to confuse you.
0:54:22 > 0:54:25And so, as the orange baton crosses,
0:54:25 > 0:54:27I want you to count the number of times
0:54:27 > 0:54:31and remember it. So pay special attention. OK.
0:54:31 > 0:54:34On your mark.
0:54:34 > 0:54:35You can start.
0:54:35 > 0:54:37Don't shout it out, keep the answer to yourself.
0:54:37 > 0:54:38CIRCUS MUSIC
0:55:11 > 0:55:12OK.
0:55:14 > 0:55:16OK.
0:55:16 > 0:55:17Round of applause.
0:55:17 > 0:55:19APPLAUSE
0:55:19 > 0:55:21So, um...
0:55:21 > 0:55:23OK, so, um...
0:55:23 > 0:55:28who thought the answer was, um...
0:55:28 > 0:55:3024?
0:55:30 > 0:55:33Um...
0:55:33 > 0:55:35Well, you're right. So, 24, stand up.
0:55:37 > 0:55:39OK.
0:55:41 > 0:55:43So, young lady.
0:55:43 > 0:55:47Did you, um...did you notice that...
0:55:47 > 0:55:50Did you notice anything strange when you were counting there?
0:55:53 > 0:55:56Did you notice anything strange, for example, about me?
0:55:56 > 0:55:58You'd taken your jacket off.
0:55:58 > 0:56:02Taken my jacket off. Anything else, about the stage?
0:56:03 > 0:56:07The skull, yeah. Did you notice the skull had changed?
0:56:07 > 0:56:09That the top hat had gone? No?
0:56:09 > 0:56:11Did everyone get the top hat going?
0:56:11 > 0:56:14And of course...did you notice this? Have a look at the video.
0:56:14 > 0:56:16Did you see the gorilla?
0:56:17 > 0:56:18Have a look.
0:56:20 > 0:56:22LAUGHTER
0:56:25 > 0:56:27You didn't see the gorilla?
0:56:27 > 0:56:30All right, big round of applause.
0:56:30 > 0:56:34I know some of you know this demonstration, but hands up
0:56:34 > 0:56:36if you honestly didn't see the gorilla.
0:56:36 > 0:56:39I think that's a pretty dramatic demonstration
0:56:39 > 0:56:42that you don't always notice everything in the world.
0:56:42 > 0:56:44Thank you, Croydon Juggling Club.
0:56:44 > 0:56:45APPLAUSE
0:56:50 > 0:56:54When you focus your attention, it's difficult to miss everything.
0:56:54 > 0:56:57We began by asking who's in charge, and ended up questioning
0:56:57 > 0:57:00if there's a single "you" inside your head in the first place.
0:57:00 > 0:57:04In the final lecture, we'll explore whether we are individuals
0:57:04 > 0:57:06or rather individuals born with a social brain
0:57:06 > 0:57:10to learn from each other and coexist in groups.
0:57:10 > 0:57:13So, thank you for watching so attentively.
0:57:13 > 0:57:14And it's goodnight from me,
0:57:14 > 0:57:17or rather it's goodnight from my frontal lobes,
0:57:17 > 0:57:19goodnight from my hippocampus.
0:57:19 > 0:57:22In fact, it's goodnight from my brain. Thank you.
0:57:22 > 0:57:24APPLAUSE AND CHEERING
0:57:46 > 0:57:49Subtitles by Red Bee Media Ltd
0:57:49 > 0:57:51E-mail subtitling@bbc.co.uk