0:00:04 > 0:00:09I use my mobile phone to send silent messages all the time.
0:00:09 > 0:00:12But what if I could control someone else's face?
0:00:14 > 0:00:16I'm sending quite a message there, aren't I?
0:00:16 > 0:00:17That looked a bit surprised.
0:00:17 > 0:00:21Now, our faces are extraordinarily powerful tools
0:00:21 > 0:00:23for silent communication.
0:00:23 > 0:00:25We can say a huge amount
0:00:25 > 0:00:29without using any sound or any speech at all.
0:00:29 > 0:00:31In this lecture, we're going to reveal
0:00:31 > 0:00:33why silent messages are one of the
0:00:33 > 0:00:36most powerful forms of communication on the planet,
0:00:36 > 0:00:38and why, for many animals,
0:00:38 > 0:00:41it can make the difference between life and death.
0:01:02 > 0:01:04Welcome to the second of
0:01:04 > 0:01:07the 2017 Royal Institution Christmas Lectures.
0:01:07 > 0:01:09I'm Professor Sophie Scott.
0:01:09 > 0:01:13Right now, I'm talking to you to get my message across with my voice.
0:01:13 > 0:01:16But like you just saw with my colleague's twitching face,
0:01:16 > 0:01:19not all communications are made with sounds.
0:01:19 > 0:01:21We, like many other animals,
0:01:21 > 0:01:23use our bodies to send silent messages
0:01:23 > 0:01:26about who we are, how we feel,
0:01:26 > 0:01:28what our intentions might really be.
0:01:28 > 0:01:30In this lecture,
0:01:30 > 0:01:31I'm going to give you an insight
0:01:31 > 0:01:34into this world of silent communication,
0:01:34 > 0:01:38and reveal how you can start to spot and decipher some of it.
0:01:40 > 0:01:42I'm going to start with what is probably
0:01:42 > 0:01:43the first way that any animals
0:01:43 > 0:01:45worked out how to communicate.
0:01:45 > 0:01:47That's using chemical messages.
0:01:47 > 0:01:49We would call those smells.
0:01:49 > 0:01:54I'm going to send your noses some information and you're going to know
0:01:54 > 0:01:57when that information's coming towards you
0:01:57 > 0:01:58because you'll see a smoke ring.
0:02:16 > 0:02:18Anybody tell me what that smelt like?
0:02:18 > 0:02:20There's something kind of sweet there, isn't there?
0:02:20 > 0:02:21There is a sort of sweet smell.
0:02:21 > 0:02:23I think it's supposed to be kind of like a
0:02:23 > 0:02:25candyfloss kind of smell, OK?
0:02:25 > 0:02:27That might suggest something edible,
0:02:27 > 0:02:28something edible's going on.
0:02:28 > 0:02:31Let's try a different smell.
0:02:36 > 0:02:37Ha-ha.
0:02:44 > 0:02:47You took a direct hit there.
0:02:47 > 0:02:50What do you think about that smell?
0:02:50 > 0:02:52Uh, poo.
0:02:52 > 0:02:54Do you like it?
0:02:54 > 0:02:56Yeah, it's great!
0:02:56 > 0:02:57I quite like it,
0:02:57 > 0:02:59it reminds me of home!
0:03:00 > 0:03:02Now, that was, indeed, the smell of poo.
0:03:02 > 0:03:05It's called skatole and it's a synthesised version of some of the
0:03:05 > 0:03:09molecules in poo and probably if you were to smell that, you might think,
0:03:09 > 0:03:11"I don't know if I do want to eat that food."
0:03:11 > 0:03:14You know, it's contaminated, there's information there.
0:03:14 > 0:03:16Now, slightly disturbingly,
0:03:16 > 0:03:19all smells are made of something physical.
0:03:19 > 0:03:23They are chemical molecules, they are literally parts of a thing,
0:03:23 > 0:03:27a body or an object that have been released into the air,
0:03:27 > 0:03:31and we detect those in our noses by chemical detectors.
0:03:31 > 0:03:34Sending messages with chemicals like smells
0:03:34 > 0:03:36is really a very basic form of communication.
0:03:36 > 0:03:38And that's because everything,
0:03:38 > 0:03:42from bacteria to blue whales, is made of chemicals.
0:03:42 > 0:03:44So, the simplest way to send a message is
0:03:44 > 0:03:48just leave some of those chemicals behind.
0:03:48 > 0:03:50A chemical that an organism uses to communicate
0:03:50 > 0:03:51with another member of the
0:03:51 > 0:03:54same species is called a pheromone,
0:03:54 > 0:03:57and this is any chemical that's released by one individual to affect
0:03:57 > 0:04:00another individual's behaviour.
0:04:00 > 0:04:01And amongst the animals,
0:04:01 > 0:04:05the absolute champion users of pheromones are insects.
0:04:05 > 0:04:06In fact, many insects rely
0:04:06 > 0:04:10completely on using smells to communicate with each other.
0:04:10 > 0:04:12To find out more,
0:04:12 > 0:04:16please welcome an expert in how insects use pheromone messaging.
0:04:16 > 0:04:19From Rothamsted Research, Dr Gia Aradottir.
0:04:25 > 0:04:26- Hi.- Hello, lovely to meet you.
0:04:26 > 0:04:28Nice to meet you.
0:04:28 > 0:04:30Now, if you could just step forward.
0:04:30 > 0:04:33Can you show us, what have you got in your hand there?
0:04:33 > 0:04:36So, here I have some aphids on a leaf.
0:04:36 > 0:04:39- OK.- They're very small, you won't be able to see them from there.
0:04:39 > 0:04:43But if I put them under the microscope here, hopefully,
0:04:43 > 0:04:44you can see them on the screen.
0:04:46 > 0:04:48Yep.
0:04:48 > 0:04:51Can you see these? So, these aphids are all mothers and daughters,
0:04:51 > 0:04:53they're all female, all girls.
0:04:53 > 0:04:55- Aphid power!- Aphid power.
0:04:55 > 0:04:59And they're happily feeding on the phloem on the leaf.
0:04:59 > 0:05:01OK. So, we've got a group of aphids.
0:05:01 > 0:05:03If they wanted to send an alarm signal,
0:05:03 > 0:05:04if something was going wrong,
0:05:04 > 0:05:06what would they do?
0:05:06 > 0:05:09If one of them is attacked by a predator, like a ladybird,
0:05:09 > 0:05:13for example, it will send a message, an alarm pheromone,
0:05:13 > 0:05:14out into the air,
0:05:14 > 0:05:18and that basically tells all of the other ones that they need to escape.
0:05:18 > 0:05:20- Can we see that?- Let's try.
0:05:20 > 0:05:25So, I have here some aphid alarm pheromone in this little vial.
0:05:25 > 0:05:31And if I put a tiny drop of alarm pheromone on the leaf next to the
0:05:31 > 0:05:32aphids, then, hopefully...
0:05:38 > 0:05:39Oh, they're off.
0:05:41 > 0:05:42Can you see? They all move away
0:05:42 > 0:05:45because they think that one of them is being attacked.
0:05:45 > 0:05:48Can we smell that?
0:05:48 > 0:05:52I can't. Let me put a little bit here on.
0:05:52 > 0:05:54The aphids all ran away but we didn't!
0:05:57 > 0:05:59No, I don't think I can smell that. This is one of the really
0:05:59 > 0:06:01interesting things about smells, isn't it?
0:06:01 > 0:06:03Because if you haven't got the
0:06:03 > 0:06:05chemical receptors to detect a smell,
0:06:05 > 0:06:07it's just not there, it's completely invisible to you.
0:06:07 > 0:06:09You are blind to it.
0:06:09 > 0:06:11So, this is a very private way of having a conversation.
0:06:11 > 0:06:14It is. And it's happening in our gardens, in our parks,
0:06:14 > 0:06:16and we have no idea what's going on.
0:06:17 > 0:06:21But if some other animal could learn about that message,
0:06:21 > 0:06:24could they start to intercept this information?
0:06:24 > 0:06:26Yeah, nature is so clever.
0:06:26 > 0:06:28So, predators have already learned
0:06:28 > 0:06:32how to recognise the alarm pheromone of the aphid.
0:06:32 > 0:06:33They are basically eavesdropping on
0:06:33 > 0:06:36the communication between the aphids.
0:06:36 > 0:06:39This alarm pheromone tells them that there is a prey there,
0:06:39 > 0:06:42there's an aphid that they can go and eat, for example.
0:06:42 > 0:06:44What kind of predator do we mean?
0:06:44 > 0:06:46So, we have parasitic wasps,
0:06:46 > 0:06:49and I've got some here in this little Petri dish.
0:06:49 > 0:06:51Manage your anxiety, they're really small,
0:06:51 > 0:06:53I don't think they'll go after us.
0:06:53 > 0:06:55They're very, very small and they only go for aphids.
0:06:57 > 0:07:00Let's see if we can find one.
0:07:00 > 0:07:04So, the wasps are picking up on the communication between the aphids.
0:07:04 > 0:07:05- They're listening in?- They are.
0:07:05 > 0:07:07To the signals from the pheromones?
0:07:07 > 0:07:09Yes. Absolutely.
0:07:09 > 0:07:11Is that an aphid? That's an aphid.
0:07:11 > 0:07:13Oh, dear, is it at terrible risk?
0:07:13 > 0:07:15It might be.
0:07:15 > 0:07:16We can look.
0:07:16 > 0:07:18- Oh.- See?
0:07:18 > 0:07:21Did you see that?
0:07:21 > 0:07:23What was actually happening there?
0:07:23 > 0:07:26I think it may actually have laid an egg inside the aphid.
0:07:26 > 0:07:27- The wasp?- The wasp.
0:07:27 > 0:07:29Laid an egg inside the aphid?
0:07:29 > 0:07:32Yeah. That's what they do. They search for aphids,
0:07:32 > 0:07:34and they lay their eggs inside the aphid.
0:07:34 > 0:07:39The egg then hatches, and the larva eats the aphid from the inside out.
0:07:39 > 0:07:43So, to be absolutely clear, we just saw something absolutely terrifying?
0:07:43 > 0:07:45- I think so.- From the point of view of an aphid.
0:07:45 > 0:07:48- Yeah, from the point of view of an aphid.- But great if you're the wasp.
0:07:48 > 0:07:51- That's amazing.- That's fantastic. Yeah. Thank you very much, Gia.
0:07:51 > 0:07:52Thank you so much.
0:07:58 > 0:08:02So, how are these insects picking up on the chemical messages?
0:08:02 > 0:08:04If you look at an aphid,
0:08:04 > 0:08:08you can see it's got these large antler-like projections
0:08:08 > 0:08:10coming out of the top of its head.
0:08:10 > 0:08:12Those are its antennae.
0:08:12 > 0:08:15They are amazing at picking up pheromones.
0:08:15 > 0:08:17But how do they actually work?
0:08:17 > 0:08:22If we were to zoom in to the surface of the antenna,
0:08:22 > 0:08:26what we find is they're covered in these fine hairs, sensory hairs,
0:08:26 > 0:08:29and the hairs are what is actually doing the smelling.
0:08:29 > 0:08:32The hairs have got very small holes in them.
0:08:32 > 0:08:36And these holes let molecules of air and other chemicals come through.
0:08:36 > 0:08:38So, that's moving through all the time,
0:08:38 > 0:08:40chemicals are moving in and moving out.
0:08:43 > 0:08:45In the centre of the hair...
0:08:46 > 0:08:48..there is a nerve cell.
0:08:48 > 0:08:51And what the nerve cell wants to do is detect pheromones.
0:08:51 > 0:08:53It's got the receptors for the pheromones.
0:08:53 > 0:08:57But if stuff's just moving through the holes,
0:08:57 > 0:09:01it doesn't make contact with this nerve cell.
0:09:01 > 0:09:04What we need is another factor,
0:09:04 > 0:09:06something to actually link it all together and that's called an
0:09:06 > 0:09:09odour-binding protein.
0:09:09 > 0:09:12And I need a volunteer to help me with this demonstration.
0:09:12 > 0:09:15Ideally, I need an odour-binding protein,
0:09:15 > 0:09:18but I will also accept a human!
0:09:18 > 0:09:20Can I have you? Thank you very much.
0:09:20 > 0:09:25You look like a very excellent odour-binding protein!
0:09:25 > 0:09:27Thank you.
0:09:28 > 0:09:30Now, what's your name?
0:09:30 > 0:09:32- Shreya.- Shreya?
0:09:32 > 0:09:34- Yes.- Now, Shreya, you're no longer Shreya,
0:09:34 > 0:09:37you are my odour-binding protein.
0:09:37 > 0:09:41And to convey this, you need to wear the odour-binding protein hat.
0:09:42 > 0:09:45I'm sorry, it's just the rule for the odour-binding protein club,
0:09:45 > 0:09:46come here, hat on.
0:09:48 > 0:09:50Transformation, I think you'll agree.
0:09:50 > 0:09:53And I need you to take
0:09:53 > 0:09:56your odour-binding protein receptor and put that on
0:09:56 > 0:09:57your right hand. There you go.
0:09:57 > 0:10:00Now, that's what you're going to use to catch molecules.
0:10:00 > 0:10:04But you can't catch all the chemicals.
0:10:04 > 0:10:06You can only catch things that will work
0:10:06 > 0:10:08with the odours you have the receptor for.
0:10:08 > 0:10:09So, I'm going to try this.
0:10:09 > 0:10:11Will you be able to catch this one?
0:10:13 > 0:10:14No.
0:10:16 > 0:10:19Oh. Excellent, mad skills, turn it upside down.
0:10:19 > 0:10:21There we go. Now, you really can catch that.
0:10:21 > 0:10:24So, what I want you to do is, they're going to start moving at
0:10:24 > 0:10:26speed through these holes in the hair.
0:10:26 > 0:10:30What I want you to do is catch them and, when you've caught one,
0:10:30 > 0:10:33bring it over to the nerve cell and make a contact.
0:10:33 > 0:10:35You also need to make a contact with your hand as well so you've
0:10:35 > 0:10:37completely triggered the nerve cell.
0:10:37 > 0:10:39And that's sending the message off to the aphid's brain.
0:10:39 > 0:10:42When you've finished, just drop the ball in there, and you're done, OK?
0:10:42 > 0:10:44Are you ready? We're going to see
0:10:44 > 0:10:46how many of these pheromones you can
0:10:46 > 0:10:49catch in the next 20 seconds.
0:10:49 > 0:10:50I'm going to count you in.
0:10:51 > 0:10:55Three, two, one.
0:10:58 > 0:11:00There you go, there you go, other hand.
0:11:00 > 0:11:03Good, brilliant. Pop it in there. Fantastic.
0:11:08 > 0:11:11You can catch them on the floor. You can catch them on the floor.
0:11:11 > 0:11:16- AUDIENCE:- Five, four, three, two, one.
0:11:16 > 0:11:17Well done!
0:11:20 > 0:11:22Well done, Shreya.
0:11:22 > 0:11:25Well done.
0:11:25 > 0:11:27That was very good. You got one but I don't think I'd have caught any.
0:11:27 > 0:11:29So, thank you very much. I'll have your...
0:11:29 > 0:11:31I'll transform you back into a human.
0:11:31 > 0:11:36So, what you did there was you were actually allowing the aphid to know
0:11:36 > 0:11:38that there was an aphid alarm pheromone
0:11:38 > 0:11:41in the environment by actually causing that nerve cell to fire.
0:11:41 > 0:11:42So, your aphid has safely escaped
0:11:42 > 0:11:46and you can all run out of the room now, if you wish to! There we go.
0:11:46 > 0:11:48Thank you very much, Shreya, thank you.
0:11:55 > 0:11:57You can think of pheromones as being a bit like hormones,
0:11:57 > 0:11:59they're things that affect...
0:11:59 > 0:12:01Chemicals that affect your body and your behaviour.
0:12:01 > 0:12:03But unlike hormones,
0:12:03 > 0:12:06it's a signal that's coming from outside of the body.
0:12:06 > 0:12:11Insects live in this world where pheromones are extremely important.
0:12:11 > 0:12:14But what about animals closer to us in the evolutionary tree?
0:12:14 > 0:12:17Do they use pheromones as well?
0:12:17 > 0:12:20Well, here is an animal that's not necessarily
0:12:20 > 0:12:23absolutely everybody's favourite animal.
0:12:23 > 0:12:24Snakes.
0:12:30 > 0:12:35Now, Phil, I see that you've got two snakes.
0:12:35 > 0:12:38I've got one. I need some volunteers.
0:12:38 > 0:12:40I need a volunteer who's absolutely
0:12:40 > 0:12:42not going to freak out when and if
0:12:42 > 0:12:44they meet a snake. OK.
0:12:44 > 0:12:46Can I have...
0:12:46 > 0:12:49You there in the pink sweater? You there, yes.
0:12:49 > 0:12:53And can I have you there in the Christmas sweater with the glasses?
0:12:53 > 0:12:54Yeah, fantastic.
0:12:57 > 0:13:00I don't see why I should be the only person freaking out because they've
0:13:00 > 0:13:02got a snake going down their blouse.
0:13:02 > 0:13:04Right, OK. So, what's your name?
0:13:04 > 0:13:06Have your hand up like that...
0:13:06 > 0:13:08- Obiay.- Obiay? Hello, Obiay. And so, what's your name?
0:13:08 > 0:13:12- Gia.- Gia. Now, Gia.- Well done. - Oh, thank you.
0:13:12 > 0:13:16Can you see these snakes are sticking their tongues out a lot?
0:13:16 > 0:13:19That's because this is an unfamiliar environment for these snakes and
0:13:19 > 0:13:22they're exploring it, they're exploring it with their tongues.
0:13:22 > 0:13:26The really interesting part about these tongues
0:13:26 > 0:13:30is that they themselves don't have any receptors on them.
0:13:30 > 0:13:32They haven't got taste buds on, like our tongues.
0:13:32 > 0:13:34What the snakes are doing,
0:13:34 > 0:13:38they're capturing molecules from the air and they're bringing them into
0:13:38 > 0:13:41the snakes' mouths. Now, this is different from the snake's nose.
0:13:41 > 0:13:44You can see they've got nostrils up at the top of their face.
0:13:44 > 0:13:47The organ that they've got inside their mouths
0:13:47 > 0:13:49is called a vomeronasal organ.
0:13:49 > 0:13:51And it actually lives...
0:13:55 > 0:13:58..on the roof of the snake's mouth.
0:13:58 > 0:14:01So, they bring the tongue in,
0:14:01 > 0:14:06and they dip the two tips of the tongue into each side,
0:14:06 > 0:14:09there's actually two little holes for the vomeronasal organ,
0:14:09 > 0:14:14and that's making direct contact with pheromones into nerve cells.
0:14:14 > 0:14:18So, that information can pass straight up into the snake's brain.
0:14:20 > 0:14:24There's a fork in the snake's tongue and that means they can tell if the
0:14:24 > 0:14:26smells have come from the left or the right.
0:14:26 > 0:14:28So, it's able to move in the direction
0:14:28 > 0:14:30that the pheromone has come from.
0:14:32 > 0:14:34What's all this for?
0:14:34 > 0:14:37Well, mostly, for snakes, it's about finding a mate.
0:14:37 > 0:14:41Snakes are shy creatures that hide and ambush their prey.
0:14:41 > 0:14:45And this system means that the male snakes can detect pheromone messages
0:14:45 > 0:14:49being given out by a receptive female snake from a great distance.
0:14:49 > 0:14:52Good news for any lady snakes in here this evening.
0:14:52 > 0:14:57So, I'm going to say bye-bye to our highly friendly snakes.
0:14:57 > 0:14:59That's fine, you guys, well done.
0:15:00 > 0:15:02- Well done.- Obiay, fantastic.
0:15:02 > 0:15:04Gia, very brave.
0:15:04 > 0:15:06- Well done.- Fantastic, thank you.
0:15:11 > 0:15:14They did brilliantly.
0:15:14 > 0:15:16I was freaking out, I don't know if you could tell that.
0:15:16 > 0:15:21So, what other animals also have a vomeronasal organ?
0:15:21 > 0:15:23Well, it turns out quite a lot of them do.
0:15:23 > 0:15:27A lot of other mammals have got vomeronasal organs that they use for
0:15:27 > 0:15:28smelling pheromones.
0:15:28 > 0:15:30So, if you've ever looked at dogs
0:15:30 > 0:15:33smelling other dogs' bottoms and thought,
0:15:33 > 0:15:35"I fail to see the appeal of that,"
0:15:35 > 0:15:38well, actually, it's because the dogs are smelling pheromones.
0:15:38 > 0:15:40And they are very short-lived pheromones,
0:15:40 > 0:15:42so they can't pass off into the air,
0:15:42 > 0:15:44so the dog's really got to put its nose
0:15:44 > 0:15:46into its friend's bottom to get to those pheromones.
0:15:46 > 0:15:48Probably too much information there!
0:15:48 > 0:15:50When cats pull a funny face,
0:15:50 > 0:15:53if a cat's ever got on your lap and gone...
0:15:54 > 0:15:57..that's the cat trying to smell your pheromones.
0:15:57 > 0:15:59Now, I love cats.
0:15:59 > 0:16:02I don't know if I absolutely want them smelling what they might think
0:16:02 > 0:16:05might be my pheromones, but it's what they do.
0:16:05 > 0:16:07It's because it matters so much to mammals.
0:16:07 > 0:16:09They live in a world of smell.
0:16:09 > 0:16:12Do humans - we're mammals - do we have a vomeronasal organ?
0:16:12 > 0:16:14Can we use smell to send messages?
0:16:16 > 0:16:20Well, if we look at the roof of a human mouth...
0:16:21 > 0:16:27..what you find is no evidence of a vomeronasal organ.
0:16:27 > 0:16:30We don't seem to have the receptors
0:16:30 > 0:16:34to actually pick up pheromone information.
0:16:35 > 0:16:38Now, we like smells, don't we?
0:16:38 > 0:16:39We do. We pay attention to smells,
0:16:39 > 0:16:41you cared about the smells we sent
0:16:41 > 0:16:43around the lecture theatre earlier in the evening,
0:16:43 > 0:16:48but they are less important to us than they are to other animals.
0:16:48 > 0:16:50For other mammals, smell dominates.
0:16:50 > 0:16:52It can be the most important sense.
0:16:54 > 0:16:59Why might we have lost some of our ancestors' smelling abilities,
0:16:59 > 0:17:03and along with it maybe our ability to use pheromones?
0:17:03 > 0:17:07Well, to think about that, we need to think about how primates evolved.
0:17:10 > 0:17:14These are three primate skulls.
0:17:14 > 0:17:18We look here, this is an ancient primate, this is a lemur.
0:17:18 > 0:17:22That's an ancestral ape, so that's one of the ancestors of apes.
0:17:22 > 0:17:24And this is a modern human.
0:17:24 > 0:17:26And one of the things you can notice
0:17:26 > 0:17:28as you get to humans is that faces...
0:17:31 > 0:17:33..start to get much flatter.
0:17:33 > 0:17:35We just have smaller noses.
0:17:35 > 0:17:39We've got less space for there to be smell information detected.
0:17:39 > 0:17:43Smell is just downplayed right from the start in humans.
0:17:43 > 0:17:46And you can also see that there have been other changes.
0:17:46 > 0:17:50So, for example, our faces are longer, our mouths are taller,
0:17:50 > 0:17:52there's more space inside our mouths,
0:17:52 > 0:17:54and we have much bigger eyes.
0:17:54 > 0:17:58And, in fact, if you look in the brain, you see a similar pattern.
0:17:58 > 0:18:00A lot of other mammals have got huge amounts
0:18:00 > 0:18:03of their brain devoted to dealing with smell.
0:18:03 > 0:18:06In humans, those smell areas are very small.
0:18:06 > 0:18:07And, in contrast, in humans,
0:18:07 > 0:18:10the brain areas associated with processing
0:18:10 > 0:18:11sound and vision are much larger.
0:18:11 > 0:18:15So, what we've done is we've really
0:18:15 > 0:18:19traded off the space in our faces and in
0:18:19 > 0:18:22our skulls for dealing with smell information,
0:18:22 > 0:18:25and we've replaced it with vision and hearing.
0:18:25 > 0:18:27And that's probably because...
0:18:28 > 0:18:31..vision and hearing have great advantages for humans,
0:18:31 > 0:18:33not least for communication.
0:18:35 > 0:18:39Now, no disrespect to smell, smell works really well for communication.
0:18:39 > 0:18:42At a distance, for example, smell can be great.
0:18:42 > 0:18:44You saw that with the snakes.
0:18:44 > 0:18:47But smells will only move at the speed of the air around them,
0:18:47 > 0:18:48and they can linger a long while.
0:18:48 > 0:18:50I am sure the aphids would prefer
0:18:50 > 0:18:52that the wasps couldn't pick up on their
0:18:52 > 0:18:55distant alarm pheromone messages.
0:18:55 > 0:18:59If, however, you want to send faster, more complicated messages,
0:18:59 > 0:19:02you need a speedier system.
0:19:02 > 0:19:05So, let's look at a more flexible way to communicate.
0:19:07 > 0:19:08Let there be light.
0:19:11 > 0:19:13Many animals produce their own light.
0:19:13 > 0:19:15This helix of light is made in a
0:19:15 > 0:19:17very similar way by mixing together two chemicals.
0:19:17 > 0:19:19In the natural world,
0:19:19 > 0:19:21a chemical called luciferin is
0:19:21 > 0:19:24mixed with an enzyme called luciferase.
0:19:24 > 0:19:27The reaction causes light to be given off.
0:19:27 > 0:19:30- AUDIENCE:- Ooh!
0:19:30 > 0:19:33Making light via this kind of chemical reaction
0:19:33 > 0:19:34is actually one of the
0:19:34 > 0:19:38commonest methods of communication on Earth.
0:19:38 > 0:19:43It's called bioluminescence, and deep sea fish are famous for it.
0:19:43 > 0:19:46To explain more, please welcome from the Natural History Museum,
0:19:46 > 0:19:49curator of fish, James Maclaine!
0:19:54 > 0:19:57Hello, James. Nice to meet you.
0:19:57 > 0:19:59Now, if you could just tell me
0:19:59 > 0:20:01what you've brought along for us today?
0:20:01 > 0:20:05I've brought along a tiny fraction of our huge deep sea fish collection
0:20:05 > 0:20:07that we have at the Natural History Museum.
0:20:07 > 0:20:11So, in our first jar we have two specimens of a thing
0:20:11 > 0:20:13called a Threadthin dragonfish.
0:20:13 > 0:20:15So it has a light organ
0:20:15 > 0:20:18on a little barb underneath its chin,
0:20:18 > 0:20:21and it uses that to attract its prey towards its mouth.
0:20:21 > 0:20:24And then all along its tummy it has rows and rows
0:20:24 > 0:20:25of little lights there.
0:20:25 > 0:20:28And what that's for is actually for camouflaging itself,
0:20:28 > 0:20:31so during the day when there is still a very faint amount of light
0:20:31 > 0:20:34above, it makes its underside glow very faint blue,
0:20:34 > 0:20:36so that if you look up, you can't see it.
0:20:36 > 0:20:38And then, my favourite thing about them,
0:20:38 > 0:20:40is they have a light organ behind their eye,
0:20:40 > 0:20:42and in the male it's much,
0:20:42 > 0:20:44much bigger than in the female.
0:20:44 > 0:20:45So what we think is, it's like
0:20:45 > 0:20:47a sort of deep sea version of a peacock's tail.
0:20:47 > 0:20:50It's a display thing, so it gets her attention.
0:20:50 > 0:20:52Fantastic. What about these guys?
0:20:52 > 0:20:53They are called Lanternfish,
0:20:53 > 0:20:56and they have a very distinctive pattern of lights along their sides.
0:20:56 > 0:20:58It's a bit like a constellation of stars.
0:20:58 > 0:21:00It's very distinctive. And it's so
0:21:00 > 0:21:02distinctive that's what they use to recognise each other.
0:21:02 > 0:21:04They live in big shoals,
0:21:04 > 0:21:05so that's how they work out they are
0:21:05 > 0:21:09- in a shoal of the same Lanternfish as themselves.- Amazing.
0:21:09 > 0:21:11- What about this guy?- This one is quite interesting.
0:21:11 > 0:21:14This is a stoplight loosejaw.
0:21:14 > 0:21:16And everything I've mentioned so far is using blue light,
0:21:16 > 0:21:19but this uses blue lights and red lights.
0:21:19 > 0:21:20Why do they use blue lights?
0:21:20 > 0:21:21Blue light travels the furthest.
0:21:21 > 0:21:24It's the frequency of light that penetrates the furthest,
0:21:24 > 0:21:27so if you want to get your signal out there, blue light is
0:21:27 > 0:21:29the best light colour to use.
0:21:29 > 0:21:31- OK.- But this
0:21:31 > 0:21:32can also create red light.
0:21:32 > 0:21:34It has, like, a light organ just
0:21:34 > 0:21:37underneath its eye, but points forward, like a torch beam.
0:21:37 > 0:21:40It can hunt out little animals using its red light,
0:21:40 > 0:21:41and nothing else can see it, because
0:21:41 > 0:21:43everything is tuned to the blue light.
0:21:43 > 0:21:45And, finally, what do we have here?
0:21:45 > 0:21:46I think this is my favourite.
0:21:46 > 0:21:49I like it so much, I'm going to get it out for you.
0:21:49 > 0:21:51There is actually two fish in here. This is a deep sea anglerfish.
0:21:51 > 0:21:53The males and the females are very different.
0:21:53 > 0:21:56The males have become very, very small.
0:21:56 > 0:22:01They are now so small and pathetic that they can't actually survive by
0:22:01 > 0:22:03themselves, they have to attach themselves to the female,
0:22:03 > 0:22:06and feed off her, like a little vampire.
0:22:06 > 0:22:09So, if I hold this very still...
0:22:09 > 0:22:13That little, sort of, tadpole thing there, is the male.
0:22:13 > 0:22:17And he's actually like a little parasite.
0:22:17 > 0:22:19Very judgmental terms here, James.
0:22:19 > 0:22:21He's been a vampire, a parasite, and pathetic.
0:22:21 > 0:22:23He is a little bit! She's using light,
0:22:23 > 0:22:26so she has, like the dragonfish,
0:22:26 > 0:22:28she's using light for catching her food.
0:22:28 > 0:22:31So that little matchstick-like thing there would be going,
0:22:31 > 0:22:34that little blue dot. That's what she uses to lure her prey in.
0:22:34 > 0:22:36And this lovely beard that she has,
0:22:36 > 0:22:38these have light organs down there, too.
0:22:38 > 0:22:40We're not sure what they are used for.
0:22:40 > 0:22:42They may even be, sort of, like, landing lights,
0:22:42 > 0:22:44to guide the male in. We just don't know.
0:22:44 > 0:22:48Thank you very, very much. There's one more thing I needed to ask.
0:22:48 > 0:22:51They are making light, how are they actually doing it?
0:22:51 > 0:22:54Well, these three are doing it in a very, sort of, chemical manner.
0:22:54 > 0:22:56They have two chemicals, I think
0:22:56 > 0:22:58we've mentioned them already, luciferin and luciferase.
0:22:58 > 0:23:01They combine the two, and that turns the light on, basically.
0:23:01 > 0:23:03- Like glow sticks.- Exactly, yes.
0:23:03 > 0:23:05But the angler fish is doing it in a much more clever way.
0:23:05 > 0:23:08It's actually getting someone else to make the light for it.
0:23:08 > 0:23:11She acquires, as she grows, little luminescent bacteria,
0:23:11 > 0:23:12and she keeps them,
0:23:12 > 0:23:14cultures them, and grows them,
0:23:14 > 0:23:16and that's what she uses to make her lights.
0:23:16 > 0:23:19Amazing. Thank you very much, James Maclaine, thank you.
0:23:19 > 0:23:20I won't shake your hand!
0:23:27 > 0:23:30Now, fish are not the only animals that communicate with light.
0:23:30 > 0:23:32It's a technique used by jellyfish and squid,
0:23:32 > 0:23:36but also above the water by insects like fireflies.
0:23:37 > 0:23:41Now, this firefly is using light to attract females.
0:23:41 > 0:23:44What is quite interesting about some species of fireflies
0:23:44 > 0:23:46is that, in groups,
0:23:46 > 0:23:50they start to synchronise their flashes somewhat,
0:23:50 > 0:23:52with each other.
0:23:52 > 0:23:53Why would they do this?
0:23:53 > 0:23:58Why would there be value in flashing your light at the same time as the
0:23:58 > 0:24:02other males that you're competing with to attract females?
0:24:02 > 0:24:05Well, we're going to have a look at a demonstration.
0:24:05 > 0:24:07You're all wearing LED wrist bands.
0:24:07 > 0:24:10Can you hold them up next to your head? Fantastic.
0:24:10 > 0:24:13And they are going to get turned on.
0:24:14 > 0:24:17What we're doing here...
0:24:17 > 0:24:19On this screen we've got a camera set up
0:24:19 > 0:24:21that's picking up those flashes.
0:24:21 > 0:24:24So you can see is something going on in the auditorium
0:24:24 > 0:24:26with these random flashes.
0:24:28 > 0:24:31If we start to make your wristbands
0:24:31 > 0:24:34start to flash more in synchrony with each other,
0:24:34 > 0:24:38you start to see something a bit more
0:24:38 > 0:24:40coherent appearing on the screen.
0:24:40 > 0:24:43It's more salient. It's more noticeable.
0:24:44 > 0:24:47When you synchronise your flashes...
0:24:49 > 0:24:51..with the other fireflies around you,
0:24:51 > 0:24:54what you get is a signal which is much stronger.
0:24:54 > 0:24:57And that, potentially, might be more noticeable by the female.
0:24:57 > 0:24:59You've still got to compete with those
0:24:59 > 0:25:01other males once you've attracted the females,
0:25:01 > 0:25:03but maybe you'd be more likely to attract
0:25:03 > 0:25:06more females in the first place, if you can be seen.
0:25:06 > 0:25:11It's also the case that different species can use different kinds of
0:25:11 > 0:25:15flashing sequences to signal what species they are.
0:25:15 > 0:25:18Maybe that's also helping the females know
0:25:18 > 0:25:19who they are looking for.
0:25:19 > 0:25:21Interestingly, in a very similar way,
0:25:21 > 0:25:26different UK lighthouses flash lights with different patterns,
0:25:26 > 0:25:31so this tells ship captains not only that there is a lighthouse there,
0:25:31 > 0:25:33but also which lighthouse it is.
0:25:33 > 0:25:34And, interestingly,
0:25:34 > 0:25:37that's a technique that was brought to the UK by
0:25:37 > 0:25:39Michael Faraday, the man, and the scientist,
0:25:39 > 0:25:42who started these lectures here at the Royal Institution.
0:25:43 > 0:25:47So we've seen animals that make their own light to communicate,
0:25:47 > 0:25:51but daytime land dwellers like us don't need to do that,
0:25:51 > 0:25:53because we've got a great big light in the sky.
0:25:53 > 0:25:55We've got the sun.
0:25:55 > 0:25:56And the sun is making light.
0:25:56 > 0:25:58Out in that daylight,
0:25:58 > 0:25:59we can be seen.
0:25:59 > 0:26:02We can take advantage of the fact that we are visible.
0:26:03 > 0:26:04And we can use this to communicate
0:26:04 > 0:26:06our state of mind, and our wellbeing.
0:26:06 > 0:26:08We can change our body's position,
0:26:08 > 0:26:10and how it moves, to convey that.
0:26:10 > 0:26:11This is called body language.
0:26:11 > 0:26:15And we are not the only animals that use it.
0:26:15 > 0:26:18Please welcome Betty and Lola, and their owners, Dani and Martin.
0:26:22 > 0:26:26Hello. Hello.
0:26:26 > 0:26:28Aren't you lovely? Aren't you lovely?
0:26:28 > 0:26:30Now, can I have a volunteer who
0:26:30 > 0:26:32might like to come and say hello to a dog?
0:26:32 > 0:26:33That's a popular one, that is.
0:26:33 > 0:26:35It's going to be very difficult to choose.
0:26:35 > 0:26:38I think I'm going to have to ask, can I have you,
0:26:38 > 0:26:41on the end? With the white T-shirt, the grey T-shirt.
0:26:41 > 0:26:43No, that's it, you're looking behind you.
0:26:43 > 0:26:45Thank you very much. Thank you.
0:26:45 > 0:26:50Now, very, very gently come and say hello to these good girls.
0:26:50 > 0:26:53Hello. There we go.
0:26:53 > 0:26:57Now, what does it mean when Betty wags her tail like that?
0:26:59 > 0:27:01- AUDIENCE MEMBER: - It means that she's happy.
0:27:01 > 0:27:04She's happy, and having a good time, yes, exactly.
0:27:04 > 0:27:07We all know this, don't we? A dog wags its tail when it's happy.
0:27:07 > 0:27:11Well, the situation turns out to be a lot more nuanced than that.
0:27:12 > 0:27:15Scientists from Genoa University
0:27:15 > 0:27:17have recently suggested that dogs
0:27:17 > 0:27:19will wag their tails slightly differently,
0:27:19 > 0:27:21depending on their mood.
0:27:21 > 0:27:23What they found is the dog with the
0:27:23 > 0:27:26more left-leaning wag is a rather more
0:27:26 > 0:27:28calm, relaxed, happy dog.
0:27:28 > 0:27:30Whereas a more right-leaning wag
0:27:30 > 0:27:33means the dog's a little bit more anxious.
0:27:33 > 0:27:35You can see this on the clip here.
0:27:35 > 0:27:37That's a more rightwards wag,
0:27:37 > 0:27:38slightly more anxious dog.
0:27:38 > 0:27:40And here we've got a leftwards wag.
0:27:40 > 0:27:43OK. The really interesting part was,
0:27:43 > 0:27:48they would show these videos to other dogs.
0:27:48 > 0:27:50And the dogs watching these videos
0:27:50 > 0:27:54would start to show slightly different emotional responses.
0:27:54 > 0:27:57The dogs who are watching the more rightwards leaning wag
0:27:57 > 0:27:59showed signs of becoming more anxious.
0:27:59 > 0:28:02And the dogs who watched the leftwards leaning wag
0:28:02 > 0:28:04became more relaxed.
0:28:04 > 0:28:07So dogs really do seem to be sending quite a complex,
0:28:07 > 0:28:12quite a nuanced piece of information in addition to just, "I'm happy."
0:28:12 > 0:28:14Thank you very much for helping us with the dogs.
0:28:14 > 0:28:16Thank you very, very much, Lola, thank you, Betty.
0:28:16 > 0:28:19Thank you, Dani. Thank you, Martin. Thank you.
0:28:26 > 0:28:31So dogs seem to be really good at reading each other's body language.
0:28:31 > 0:28:34But can dogs pick up on body language messages
0:28:34 > 0:28:35from another animal?
0:28:35 > 0:28:38Like us? Many people will have noticed
0:28:38 > 0:28:40their dogs behaving differently,
0:28:40 > 0:28:43depending on whether they are in a good or bad mood.
0:28:43 > 0:28:46But do those dogs really know what we're thinking?
0:28:46 > 0:28:47At the University of Lincoln,
0:28:47 > 0:28:50Professor Daniel Mills is testing whether or not
0:28:50 > 0:28:54dogs can use our facial expressions to help understand our emotions.
0:28:54 > 0:28:57Hiya. So these are some of the team that we've been working with.
0:28:57 > 0:28:58These are just pet dogs,
0:28:58 > 0:29:02they've not been specially trained for anything to do with the study.
0:29:02 > 0:29:03We just want to see how they respond to
0:29:03 > 0:29:06what's going on emotionally, around them.
0:29:06 > 0:29:07So we want them to have
0:29:07 > 0:29:09the full repertoire of emotional reactions,
0:29:09 > 0:29:12lunging at cameras, and everything. OK?
0:29:17 > 0:29:21What we have is, we have a set-up here, you can see these two screens.
0:29:21 > 0:29:25And one of them shows an angry face, one of them shows a happy face.
0:29:25 > 0:29:28The dog sits down here, and then we'll play them a sound,
0:29:28 > 0:29:31and that will either be an angry or a happy sound.
0:29:31 > 0:29:35The language is Portuguese, and Ralph here doesn't know Portuguese.
0:29:35 > 0:29:36If they can understand emotion,
0:29:36 > 0:29:38then the only thing linking the
0:29:38 > 0:29:41sounds and the pictures is their emotional content.
0:29:41 > 0:29:43PORTUGUESE SPOKEN WITH HAPPY INTONATION
0:29:43 > 0:29:46PORTUGUESE SPOKEN WITH ANGRY INTONATION
0:29:46 > 0:29:48What we find is that, actually,
0:29:48 > 0:29:52the dogs spend more time looking at the picture that matches the sound.
0:29:52 > 0:29:53HAPPY PORTUGUESE
0:29:53 > 0:29:56HAPPY PORTUGUESE REPEATED
0:29:56 > 0:29:58The only way you can actually do that is
0:29:58 > 0:30:01if you can extract the emotional information from both.
0:30:01 > 0:30:03ANGRY PORTUGUESE
0:30:03 > 0:30:05ANGRY PORTUGUESE REPEATED
0:30:05 > 0:30:06Sure enough, the dogs do this
0:30:06 > 0:30:08integration of the different emotional signals.
0:30:08 > 0:30:11They clearly have this much higher understanding of emotion than
0:30:11 > 0:30:13we've previously actually thought.
0:30:13 > 0:30:15ANGRY PORTUGUESE
0:30:15 > 0:30:17ANGRY PORTUGUESE REPEATED
0:30:17 > 0:30:19ANGRY PORTUGUESE REPEATED
0:30:25 > 0:30:28So pet dogs really do seem to be
0:30:28 > 0:30:30able to detect when there's emotional
0:30:30 > 0:30:34information from the face and from the voice, they are coherent,
0:30:34 > 0:30:35they are consistent with one another.
0:30:35 > 0:30:39So they are definitely using our facial information to work out what
0:30:39 > 0:30:41emotion we're expressing.
0:30:41 > 0:30:43But how good are we humans at
0:30:43 > 0:30:47picking up silent visual communication?
0:30:50 > 0:30:52What do you think we are looking at here,
0:30:52 > 0:30:54if our pile of ping-pong balls starts to move?
0:31:03 > 0:31:06- Do you think we are looking at humans? AUDIENCE:- Yes.
0:31:06 > 0:31:09Yeah, OK. How many humans?
0:31:09 > 0:31:11- Two.- Do you think it's two men, two women?
0:31:11 > 0:31:15- Two men.- A man and a woman?
0:31:15 > 0:31:17It's a man and a woman, I think.
0:31:17 > 0:31:20OK. Shall we try some emotions? Give us an emotion.
0:31:24 > 0:31:25- Scared.- Scared. Perfect.
0:31:25 > 0:31:29- OK, try another one.- Angry.
0:31:29 > 0:31:30Fantastic.
0:31:30 > 0:31:31And one last one.
0:31:32 > 0:31:33Happy.
0:31:33 > 0:31:35Yes, fantastic.
0:31:36 > 0:31:37Laughter, yes.
0:31:40 > 0:31:41Fantastic.
0:31:45 > 0:31:47Now, this is Blair and Alexis, and in fact,
0:31:47 > 0:31:48you were getting all that information
0:31:48 > 0:31:51from who they were and how they were moving
0:31:51 > 0:31:52just from 14 points which
0:31:52 > 0:31:55are marked on their joints for each of them.
0:31:55 > 0:31:57So this is showing you how good you are
0:31:57 > 0:32:00at pulling out information about how humans move,
0:32:00 > 0:32:03because even with this really reduced amount of information,
0:32:03 > 0:32:05you could tell a lot about who they were,
0:32:05 > 0:32:06what emotions they were feeling.
0:32:06 > 0:32:08Thank you, Blair, thank you, Alexis.
0:32:14 > 0:32:18Now, our bodies give away a huge amount about our inner feelings,
0:32:18 > 0:32:23but our faces can be even more expressive.
0:32:23 > 0:32:25I've got a very scary video
0:32:25 > 0:32:27that I want you to watch.
0:32:27 > 0:32:30Please bear in mind, it is very scary,
0:32:30 > 0:32:33but I need you to keep looking, OK?
0:32:33 > 0:32:37I want you to watch this video and count how many birds you can see.
0:32:37 > 0:32:38I will be testing you.
0:32:42 > 0:32:45CALM JINGLY MUSIC
0:32:58 > 0:33:00SCREAMING
0:33:06 > 0:33:09I've got to tell you, that was a trick. There were no birds.
0:33:09 > 0:33:11OK, don't worry if you hadn't seen any birds.
0:33:11 > 0:33:14I just wanted you to get scared by the video.
0:33:14 > 0:33:17Let's have a look at what we filmed, from you, in the audience,
0:33:17 > 0:33:19and see if we've got any good reactions.
0:33:24 > 0:33:25Oh, fantastic.
0:33:25 > 0:33:28Now, I think that was you.
0:33:28 > 0:33:30Did you feel scared? You moved right back, didn't you?
0:33:31 > 0:33:34One of the things that's quite interesting, quite striking,
0:33:34 > 0:33:38about these sorts of fearful facial emotions,
0:33:38 > 0:33:40is that everybody's slightly different.
0:33:40 > 0:33:42We're not all doing everything exactly the same way.
0:33:42 > 0:33:47But you see these commonalities, for emotions like fear,
0:33:47 > 0:33:49if we look back at your disgusted faces
0:33:49 > 0:33:52when we were sending that poo-y smell out.
0:33:52 > 0:33:54You could see some similarities there.
0:33:54 > 0:33:56That's because these are examples of
0:33:56 > 0:34:00what are known as universal, or basic emotions.
0:34:00 > 0:34:03They mean the same thing wherever you go.
0:34:03 > 0:34:06Now, it's not all our emotions, it's things like fear, anger,
0:34:06 > 0:34:09and disgust, laughter,
0:34:09 > 0:34:13and they are almost like a map of human emotions
0:34:13 > 0:34:15that we can use to convey
0:34:15 > 0:34:17how we're feeling for a certain set of emotions
0:34:17 > 0:34:21that it seems all humans can experience and recognise.
0:34:21 > 0:34:25But where do these emotional expressions come from?
0:34:25 > 0:34:27Well, the fact that some of them are universal,
0:34:27 > 0:34:29you find them across all human cultures,
0:34:29 > 0:34:34is a hint that they come from deeper in our evolutionary story.
0:34:34 > 0:34:37Hello, Charlotte. Now, this is a book,
0:34:37 > 0:34:40a very special book from the RI library.
0:34:40 > 0:34:41And it's a book by Charles Darwin.
0:34:41 > 0:34:44Now, Charles Darwin is obviously very famous
0:34:44 > 0:34:45for The Origin Of Species but
0:34:45 > 0:34:48he also wrote this absolutely beautiful book
0:34:48 > 0:34:51called On The Expression Of Emotions In Man And Animals.
0:34:51 > 0:34:54Now, Charlotte, you are the archivist here
0:34:54 > 0:34:55at the Royal Institution, yeah?
0:34:55 > 0:34:58Can we have a look at some of the pictures here?
0:34:58 > 0:35:01So this is examples that Charles Darwin
0:35:01 > 0:35:03was giving of fearful faces.
0:35:03 > 0:35:04Has he got a fearful animal in there?
0:35:04 > 0:35:10So that's a fearful cat, the cat doesn't look exactly like the human,
0:35:10 > 0:35:14the faces are different, but you are getting the open mouth,
0:35:14 > 0:35:16he was trying to tease out how this could be working.
0:35:16 > 0:35:18Maybe emotions have the same function,
0:35:18 > 0:35:19in humans and other animals.
0:35:19 > 0:35:21Maybe that's why they are evolutionarily important.
0:35:21 > 0:35:23Thank you very much, Charlotte.
0:35:27 > 0:35:30And, actually, the work that Darwin started has been
0:35:30 > 0:35:32very influential over the next 150 or so years.
0:35:32 > 0:35:35Many of his ideas about these motions we share,
0:35:35 > 0:35:37across humans and other animals,
0:35:37 > 0:35:41that have this ancient evolutionary basis, really have been borne out.
0:35:42 > 0:35:47One idea about why they might look the way they do could be simply that
0:35:47 > 0:35:49they've evolved to be as distinct as possible.
0:35:49 > 0:35:51If I look frightened, you should be
0:35:51 > 0:35:53able to recognise that unambiguously,
0:35:53 > 0:35:56because if I'm frightened, you should be frightened, too.
0:35:56 > 0:35:59So these basic emotions, they can't be uncertain,
0:35:59 > 0:36:00they can't be too ambiguous.
0:36:00 > 0:36:02You need to be able to pick up on them quickly.
0:36:02 > 0:36:05So maybe that's why they look the way they do.
0:36:05 > 0:36:10But what about when we don't want to give away our emotions?
0:36:10 > 0:36:15A lot of the time, we work quite hard to cover up what we're feeling.
0:36:15 > 0:36:19Sometimes because it might be a bit difficult for the social situation,
0:36:19 > 0:36:22sometimes because some emotions are considered, in certain cultures,
0:36:22 > 0:36:24to be simply inappropriate.
0:36:24 > 0:36:27Right now, in our culture, we like to think that boys don't cry.
0:36:27 > 0:36:29Boys, you're absolutely allowed to cry,
0:36:29 > 0:36:31but we just believe it's not a very manly thing to do.
0:36:31 > 0:36:33That's just us.
0:36:33 > 0:36:35But it means that people often are
0:36:35 > 0:36:37trying to put a face out to the world,
0:36:37 > 0:36:40that might cover up the emotions they are really feeling.
0:36:40 > 0:36:45And what I'd like to do is do an experiment with you three
0:36:45 > 0:36:50to see if we can find out which of you is good at doing this.
0:36:50 > 0:36:53Now, to do this what I have are three delicious sweets.
0:36:53 > 0:36:56And I would like you each to choose a delicious sweet.
0:36:57 > 0:37:00Don't put it in your mouth just yet, take the tissue as well.
0:37:02 > 0:37:05Now, before you put them in your mouths, I have to tell you,
0:37:05 > 0:37:08one of these delicious sweets is not even slightly delicious.
0:37:08 > 0:37:11It's absolutely horrible. What we are going to do -
0:37:11 > 0:37:13I don't know which one's got it -
0:37:13 > 0:37:15we're going to ask you to put those in your mouths in just a second,
0:37:15 > 0:37:18and we're all going to look at you
0:37:18 > 0:37:22and see if we can work out which one of you has got the horrible sweet.
0:37:22 > 0:37:25So your job is to try and pretend that you're absolutely fine,
0:37:25 > 0:37:28you've got a delicious one. OK? We good?
0:37:28 > 0:37:31Are we going to count them down? Three, two,
0:37:31 > 0:37:33one.
0:37:46 > 0:37:48I'm getting something here as well.
0:37:49 > 0:37:51Oh.
0:37:51 > 0:37:56Now, who thinks this person has the horrible sweet?
0:37:58 > 0:38:01Who thinks you've got a horrible sweet?
0:38:02 > 0:38:04Who thinks you've got the horrible sweet?
0:38:04 > 0:38:07Actually, they've all got horrible sweets, I'm a liar, OK.
0:38:07 > 0:38:11They are all horrible sweets. You can spit them out if you want to.
0:38:11 > 0:38:13Apparently, if you keep going they become acceptable.
0:38:13 > 0:38:16But...you don't have to.
0:38:16 > 0:38:19The point here is that even though they were trying very, very hard,
0:38:19 > 0:38:22everybody thought they were the only one with a horrible sweet.
0:38:22 > 0:38:24But little bits of it were coming through.
0:38:24 > 0:38:27We leak through our real feelings all the time,
0:38:27 > 0:38:30even if we're trying to control what we look like.
0:38:30 > 0:38:32And, of course, that can mean, in reality,
0:38:32 > 0:38:36it can be quite complex to work out what someone's face is saying.
0:38:36 > 0:38:38There can be a lot of things that they want to express,
0:38:38 > 0:38:42and that they are trying to hide, on their face, all at the same time.
0:38:44 > 0:38:48What does that mean for people who might encounter challenges when they
0:38:48 > 0:38:51are trying to understand other people's emotions?
0:38:52 > 0:38:55All this complexity in what faces say
0:38:55 > 0:38:59can create real issues for people on the autism spectrum -
0:38:59 > 0:39:01real issues recognising what other
0:39:01 > 0:39:03people's emotions mean, and, of course,
0:39:03 > 0:39:06what their own emotions might be conveying.
0:39:06 > 0:39:11I'd like to introduce a robot who is a potential way to help.
0:39:11 > 0:39:13Please welcome Zeno the robot
0:39:13 > 0:39:16and Dr Alyssa Alcorn from UCL,
0:39:16 > 0:39:17part of the DE-ENIGMA project.
0:39:25 > 0:39:27Hello, Zeno.
0:39:31 > 0:39:32Hey.
0:39:34 > 0:39:37Alyssa, how is Zeno going to help?
0:39:38 > 0:39:43On the DE-ENIGMA project we're using the Zeno robots as teachers,
0:39:43 > 0:39:46as part of a programme working with children on the autism spectrum,
0:39:46 > 0:39:49to help them learn about facial expressions
0:39:49 > 0:39:52and tell different facial expressions apart,
0:39:52 > 0:39:54what they are called, what they mean.
0:39:54 > 0:39:58And this will help them in their everyday social interaction.
0:39:58 > 0:39:59Fantastic.
0:39:59 > 0:40:01Can we find out more about how he works,
0:40:01 > 0:40:04or is it easier to do that with a volunteer?
0:40:04 > 0:40:08- I think it is, actually. - OK, now, I'd like you...
0:40:08 > 0:40:09You can put your hands down.
0:40:09 > 0:40:11Just pull your angriest face,
0:40:11 > 0:40:14and I'm going to try and find a very good actor.
0:40:14 > 0:40:15A really angry face.
0:40:16 > 0:40:18Very, very angry faces.
0:40:18 > 0:40:23There is a fantastic angry face there, with antlers, can I have you,
0:40:23 > 0:40:25angry man? Thank you very much.
0:40:31 > 0:40:33Now, just stand there.
0:40:33 > 0:40:35- Can you tell me your name?- Addy.
0:40:35 > 0:40:36Addy? Fantastic.
0:40:36 > 0:40:38Can you just come and sit here?
0:40:38 > 0:40:40What we are going to ask you to do
0:40:40 > 0:40:44is pull some emotional faces at Zeno.
0:40:44 > 0:40:46And we're going to see - look on the screen here -
0:40:46 > 0:40:50we'll see how Zeno is seeing that face. Is that right?
0:40:50 > 0:40:52So, let's have a look up here.
0:40:52 > 0:40:56And we see we've got this green box that appears over his face,
0:40:56 > 0:41:00and it's tracking 49 different points on his face,
0:41:00 > 0:41:01each little red dot there.
0:41:01 > 0:41:05And if you start moving your face for Zeno...
0:41:05 > 0:41:07See, the picture is moving, too.
0:41:07 > 0:41:09And it's tracking those points, where they are,
0:41:09 > 0:41:11how they are moving over time,
0:41:11 > 0:41:15and then is using a machine learning process, using statistics,
0:41:15 > 0:41:18to estimate what kind of face it thinks he's showing.
0:41:18 > 0:41:22So if we look down here, right now, it thinks he's smiling.
0:41:22 > 0:41:24I think that looks like a pretty good smile.
0:41:24 > 0:41:26- That's a great smile.- Yeah.
0:41:26 > 0:41:27Shall we try a different expression?
0:41:27 > 0:41:29Could you look frightened for us,
0:41:29 > 0:41:30could you pull a screaming face?
0:41:32 > 0:41:36So what's happening now is it's taking all those points there,
0:41:36 > 0:41:39and using them like instructions for the robot's face.
0:41:39 > 0:41:43It's telling him how to move the motors in his face,
0:41:43 > 0:41:46so he's making the same expression, at almost the same time.
0:41:46 > 0:41:48Fantastic, fantastic.
0:41:48 > 0:41:49Can we try the smile again, then?
0:41:49 > 0:41:52Turn your face back up. There we go. That's more like it.
0:41:52 > 0:41:54Zeno is smiling, too.
0:41:54 > 0:41:56You have an officially intense smile, that's quite impressive.
0:41:56 > 0:41:58Thank you very much.
0:41:58 > 0:42:00- Thank you, Alyssa.- Thank you.
0:42:03 > 0:42:05Thank you, Addy. Thank you.
0:42:09 > 0:42:13It's really exciting to see how these modern-day robotics could be
0:42:13 > 0:42:17possibly used to really help people who are struggling to understand the
0:42:17 > 0:42:19nuances of facial expressions.
0:42:19 > 0:42:23We've seen how amazingly complex facial expressions
0:42:23 > 0:42:24can be on their own in humans,
0:42:24 > 0:42:26but there's another part of our face
0:42:26 > 0:42:29that communicates even more - our eyes.
0:42:29 > 0:42:35In contrast to other mammals, humans have got very, very different eyes.
0:42:35 > 0:42:37Our eyes are the same structure,
0:42:37 > 0:42:40we've got the whites of the eyes, a pupil, and the iris.
0:42:40 > 0:42:44But in all other mammals you can only see the iris and the pupil.
0:42:44 > 0:42:45In human eyes you can absolutely
0:42:45 > 0:42:47always see the whites of the eyes around that.
0:42:47 > 0:42:49You are seeing the sclera.
0:42:49 > 0:42:51And that seems to do two things.
0:42:51 > 0:42:56It makes the eyes really stand out, our eyes are very high contrast,
0:42:56 > 0:42:57very visible things.
0:42:57 > 0:43:01And also, it lets us be very, very sensitive
0:43:01 > 0:43:04to where exactly someone is looking.
0:43:04 > 0:43:08And we use that all the time when we're having communication,
0:43:08 > 0:43:09when we're talking to each other.
0:43:09 > 0:43:11So if I just do a quick demonstration here,
0:43:11 > 0:43:13I'm going to look down this camera.
0:43:13 > 0:43:15And I'm going to tell you when I move my eyes,
0:43:15 > 0:43:18and I want you to tell me if I'm looking directly at you,
0:43:18 > 0:43:20or if I'm looking away.
0:43:20 > 0:43:22OK. I'll start with my eyes closed,
0:43:22 > 0:43:24and I'll try and move them every time I open my eyes.
0:43:24 > 0:43:25OK.
0:43:27 > 0:43:28At you or away?
0:43:30 > 0:43:31At me.
0:43:32 > 0:43:34Away.
0:43:34 > 0:43:39Now, you're picking really, really tiny movements of my eyes up there.
0:43:39 > 0:43:43I was actually moving my eyes only just to the side of the camera.
0:43:43 > 0:43:46About two degrees of the whole visual scene around me.
0:43:46 > 0:43:48So a minuscule amount.
0:43:48 > 0:43:51We are incredibly sensitive to this, and what we do with that
0:43:51 > 0:43:55is we use a lot of information about who someone is talking to,
0:43:55 > 0:43:57what they are talking about,
0:43:57 > 0:43:59and who they are talking about.
0:43:59 > 0:44:02And we use it all the time.
0:44:02 > 0:44:03Now, thanks for this,
0:44:03 > 0:44:05I just want to ask you, do you think,
0:44:05 > 0:44:07if I throw this sweet in the air...
0:44:07 > 0:44:09..I'll be able to catch it?
0:44:09 > 0:44:11I'm very good at this. OK.
0:44:11 > 0:44:13Let's try this.
0:44:16 > 0:44:18That wasn't very satisfactory, was it? Let's try again.
0:44:21 > 0:44:24OK. That's better. Let's try a higher one.
0:44:26 > 0:44:28OK. Now, can you throw this to me?
0:44:31 > 0:44:34Oh, thank you. Now, can you throw it to me?
0:44:36 > 0:44:38Mate, stop it, thank you.
0:44:38 > 0:44:42Now, obviously, there were no sweets there whatsoever.
0:44:42 > 0:44:43It was just a trick.
0:44:43 > 0:44:46What I was doing was looking at where there was nothing,
0:44:46 > 0:44:48and I was pointing at where there was nothing,
0:44:48 > 0:44:50and I was pretending to hold nothing,
0:44:50 > 0:44:52and we all just start looking at nothing
0:44:52 > 0:44:55and pretending that I am throwing something in the air
0:44:55 > 0:44:58and catching it in my bag. This is the same thing that we're using
0:44:58 > 0:45:01when we use eye gaze in conversation
0:45:01 > 0:45:03for kind of capturing attention.
0:45:03 > 0:45:05We are focusing attention on who we are talking to,
0:45:05 > 0:45:06who we are talking about.
0:45:07 > 0:45:10For a long time, it was thought this kind of joint attention
0:45:10 > 0:45:13was something that only humans could do.
0:45:13 > 0:45:16It's turned out other animals can do this, too.
0:45:16 > 0:45:19Dogs understand what pointing means.
0:45:19 > 0:45:22And even, it turns out, some birds
0:45:22 > 0:45:24can understand what eye gaze means.
0:45:24 > 0:45:29Ravens are one of the few animals that seem to understand this.
0:45:29 > 0:45:31They understand what it means when something is looking.
0:45:32 > 0:45:35And I'd like you to give a not too loud clap
0:45:35 > 0:45:37to a very fantastic raven called Bran,
0:45:37 > 0:45:39and his owner, Lloyd Buck.
0:45:42 > 0:45:44Hello. Hello, Lloyd.
0:45:44 > 0:45:46Hello.
0:45:46 > 0:45:48Hello, Bran. Now, Lloyd,
0:45:48 > 0:45:51do you get the feeling that Bran uses information about where you're
0:45:51 > 0:45:54- looking?- Yes, very much so.- Can we see an example of that, Lloyd?
0:45:54 > 0:45:59We certainly can. Now, Bran has a special stone, he knows that word.
0:45:59 > 0:46:00And it's hidden somewhere in this room.
0:46:00 > 0:46:02So if I let him eat that piece of food,
0:46:02 > 0:46:04then I'll say, where's your stone, Bran? Where is it?
0:46:04 > 0:46:08And he's looking, and then if I look, where's your stone, Bran?
0:46:13 > 0:46:15He did. He was really looking.
0:46:15 > 0:46:18He looked around, and then looked where you were looking.
0:46:18 > 0:46:20There's your stone.
0:46:20 > 0:46:24Now, Bran. That's a good boy. Thank you very much.
0:46:24 > 0:46:27Luckily, Bran chose the person in
0:46:27 > 0:46:29the room we know is most easily scared.
0:46:29 > 0:46:31Are you going to be OK?
0:46:33 > 0:46:37That's amazing. But why would ravens be particularly good at this ability
0:46:37 > 0:46:41to understand what it means when something is looking somewhere?
0:46:41 > 0:46:43Well, it could be because it's very
0:46:43 > 0:46:45useful as a way of helping them solve problems.
0:46:45 > 0:46:46These are birds that have
0:46:46 > 0:46:49to solve a lot of problems in the wild, aren't they?
0:46:49 > 0:46:51Before we actually go into an example of this,
0:46:51 > 0:46:55we're just going to show you how good Bran is at solving problems.
0:46:55 > 0:47:00And we've got here a puzzle box Bran hasn't seen before.
0:47:00 > 0:47:03It's got some food in it that Bran is going to want.
0:47:03 > 0:47:05And what we are going to do is show it to him,
0:47:05 > 0:47:07and he's going to work out how to
0:47:07 > 0:47:11solve the problem of getting through to the stuff he wants in the middle.
0:47:11 > 0:47:13- Is that OK? Are we all right to begin?- Yeah, we certainly are.
0:47:15 > 0:47:16Go on, then, Bran.
0:47:18 > 0:47:20He's got to work out how to get into that...
0:47:33 > 0:47:35Unbelievable.
0:47:44 > 0:47:46That's it.
0:47:46 > 0:47:49I've made it hard for him, this is not an easy one.
0:47:50 > 0:47:53He just gave us a right look, like, "Oh, come on!"
0:47:58 > 0:47:59Wow.
0:48:03 > 0:48:05So he's got to pull the string.
0:48:05 > 0:48:08- Yeah.- This is an emotional roller-coaster.
0:48:08 > 0:48:11- He'll get it.- There we go, fantastic, well done.
0:48:14 > 0:48:15Well done, Bran.
0:48:17 > 0:48:18Now, in the wild,
0:48:18 > 0:48:22a bird like Bran has got to solve puzzles and problems all the time.
0:48:22 > 0:48:24And one of them is there are lots of birds like Bran out there
0:48:24 > 0:48:28who are also very clever, so when Bran wants to hide his food,
0:48:28 > 0:48:32he has got to find some way of tricking other birds
0:48:32 > 0:48:33if they are looking at him.
0:48:33 > 0:48:39Now, I've got a clip of a bird doing some deception,
0:48:39 > 0:48:43a bird using communication to lie to other birds.
0:48:43 > 0:48:45But Bran really dislikes videos.
0:48:45 > 0:48:47So we're going to say thank you to Lloyd,
0:48:47 > 0:48:49and thank you to the extremely clever Bran before we show that.
0:48:49 > 0:48:51Thank you.
0:48:55 > 0:48:57This is a bird that is being watched by other birds,
0:48:57 > 0:48:59who all saw her bury her food earlier.
0:49:00 > 0:49:02Now she knows they are no longer watching,
0:49:02 > 0:49:04she's hiding the food elsewhere.
0:49:04 > 0:49:07This is typical of raven and crow behaviour.
0:49:07 > 0:49:09So, this is an example of ravens
0:49:09 > 0:49:11using their understanding of eye gaze to
0:49:11 > 0:49:13help them solve the problem,
0:49:13 > 0:49:15of how they stop other ravens from stealing all their food.
0:49:16 > 0:49:17And it's an interesting point,
0:49:17 > 0:49:20that what you're seeing is them using deception
0:49:20 > 0:49:23as a way of covering up what they really want to do.
0:49:23 > 0:49:27But, of course, deception is still a form of communication.
0:49:27 > 0:49:30So we've seen how much we can communicate
0:49:30 > 0:49:32with our bodies and our faces,
0:49:32 > 0:49:35even if we choose not to, or were trying to fake it.
0:49:35 > 0:49:37There is a very basic communication
0:49:37 > 0:49:40we do all the time that we're normally a lot less aware of.
0:49:40 > 0:49:44And this is how we communicate a lot of friendship and affection,
0:49:44 > 0:49:46and affiliation with other people,
0:49:46 > 0:49:48by picking up little bits of behaviour,
0:49:48 > 0:49:51falling into the same things that they are doing.
0:49:51 > 0:49:53A lot of the time, we often do this
0:49:53 > 0:49:56without even noticing we're doing it.
0:49:56 > 0:49:59A few days ago we filmed two of you going for a walk together.
0:49:59 > 0:50:02Are you here? We filmed you walking.
0:50:02 > 0:50:03We've got a short clip of this here.
0:50:05 > 0:50:07Notice what they are already doing.
0:50:08 > 0:50:10They are walking in step with each other.
0:50:11 > 0:50:13When you walk alongside somebody else,
0:50:13 > 0:50:17you more often than not walk at the same rate as they walk,
0:50:17 > 0:50:20even if they are a very different height from you.
0:50:20 > 0:50:22And that's an example of this kind of
0:50:22 > 0:50:24picking up other people's behaviour.
0:50:24 > 0:50:25Just falling in with what they are doing,
0:50:25 > 0:50:27without even realising that you're doing it.
0:50:27 > 0:50:30You're doing a basic, friendly thing.
0:50:38 > 0:50:41Now, you just very politely clapped along with me then.
0:50:41 > 0:50:44I had no reason to clap, their walking was good,
0:50:44 > 0:50:46it wasn't quite clap, was it? Now, what you are doing is,
0:50:46 > 0:50:49you started clapping because I started clapping.
0:50:49 > 0:50:53Another example of this, joining in, this, kind of, contagious behaviour.
0:50:53 > 0:50:54Studies have shown people in
0:50:54 > 0:50:57audiences are much more likely to clap if
0:50:57 > 0:50:59somebody near them starts clapping, than if they don't.
0:50:59 > 0:51:02It just spreads through the audience, like we just did then.
0:51:02 > 0:51:04And, in fact, this kind of contagious behaviour,
0:51:04 > 0:51:07where you join in with what other people are doing,
0:51:07 > 0:51:08is extremely common.
0:51:08 > 0:51:12Laughter, which I study, for example, is highly contagious.
0:51:12 > 0:51:14In fact, you are primed to laugh,
0:51:14 > 0:51:16just by other people being around you.
0:51:16 > 0:51:18You're 13 times more likely to laugh
0:51:18 > 0:51:20if there is somebody else with you,
0:51:20 > 0:51:22than if you are on your own.
0:51:22 > 0:51:24And these contagious behaviours
0:51:24 > 0:51:28are still a very important form of communication.
0:51:29 > 0:51:30Why does it happen?
0:51:30 > 0:51:34What triggers it? Well, this is a picture from a recent study...
0:51:36 > 0:51:37..that we did at UCL.
0:51:37 > 0:51:40This is showing the brain networks activated
0:51:40 > 0:51:44in teenage boys when they listened to laughter.
0:51:44 > 0:51:47What we are seeing is a couple of different networks
0:51:47 > 0:51:50actually being driven by listening to laughter.
0:51:50 > 0:51:51These areas here...
0:51:52 > 0:51:55..those are auditory parts of the brain.
0:51:55 > 0:51:56And what they are doing is they are
0:51:56 > 0:51:58processing the sound of the laughter.
0:51:58 > 0:51:59These areas here...
0:52:01 > 0:52:02..up there, and down there,
0:52:02 > 0:52:05those are brain areas associated with producing movements.
0:52:05 > 0:52:08What we are actually seeing here is when you listen to laughter,
0:52:08 > 0:52:10even if you're having your brain scanned,
0:52:10 > 0:52:12which is not remotely funny,
0:52:12 > 0:52:14you are getting ready to join in.
0:52:14 > 0:52:18Why on Earth would it be a useful form of communication
0:52:18 > 0:52:21to just join in with what somebody else is doing?
0:52:22 > 0:52:24Well, it's probably because we are social animals.
0:52:24 > 0:52:27We rely on other members of our group for survival.
0:52:27 > 0:52:29Picking up little bits of other
0:52:29 > 0:52:31people's behaviour and joining in with them,
0:52:31 > 0:52:33or reflecting back to them,
0:52:33 > 0:52:37is a really quick and efficient communication that you know someone.
0:52:37 > 0:52:39You like someone.
0:52:39 > 0:52:43And this form of communication, by joint action, may, in fact,
0:52:43 > 0:52:46be one of the most important things we ever do.
0:52:46 > 0:52:50So we've seen how we can get across our thoughts, feelings,
0:52:50 > 0:52:54our intentions, without necessarily ever uttering a word.
0:52:54 > 0:52:58But all these forms of communication involve us using our senses to pick
0:52:58 > 0:53:02up the messages - we are smelling things, we are seeing things -
0:53:02 > 0:53:06could there be a possible future of silent communication
0:53:06 > 0:53:09where we just communicate directly, brain to brain?
0:53:10 > 0:53:14Well, 40 years ago, someone at NASA definitely thought so.
0:53:15 > 0:53:19It's 40 years now since the two Voyager space probes left the Earth.
0:53:19 > 0:53:22They each carry a Golden Record.
0:53:22 > 0:53:26A bit like this. And there's a sound on the Golden Records,
0:53:26 > 0:53:27that not many people know about.
0:53:27 > 0:53:35LOW GRINDING HUM
0:53:35 > 0:53:39Now, those are electrical signals from someone's brain.
0:53:39 > 0:53:42And they've been converted into a sound that we can hear.
0:53:42 > 0:53:47The idea behind including these on the record was that an alien species
0:53:47 > 0:53:52might be able to read the thoughts that lie behind those brainwaves.
0:53:52 > 0:53:55Now, reading brainwaves sounds like science fiction.
0:53:55 > 0:53:58How far off the mark were they 40 years ago?
0:53:58 > 0:54:00Well, Dr Ioannis Zoulias
0:54:00 > 0:54:03and his colleagues from the University of Reading
0:54:03 > 0:54:05have devised an experiment to see
0:54:05 > 0:54:08if we can prove whether or not this is at all possible.
0:54:08 > 0:54:11We've pre-selected a volunteer, Hannah,
0:54:11 > 0:54:15to be the person who's going to send us a message from her brain.
0:54:15 > 0:54:17She's sitting at the other end of the RI building.
0:54:18 > 0:54:20She's wearing a headset,
0:54:20 > 0:54:24and that headset is measuring, detecting and measuring,
0:54:24 > 0:54:27the electrical activity inside her brain.
0:54:27 > 0:54:31On the screen in front of her are two squares.
0:54:31 > 0:54:33One is yellow, one's red.
0:54:33 > 0:54:36And we're going to tell Hannah which one to look at,
0:54:36 > 0:54:38and we're going to read from her brainwaves,
0:54:38 > 0:54:41and try and decode that information.
0:54:43 > 0:54:48Hannah's mother, Rashima, is going to receive this message.
0:54:48 > 0:54:51Now, Rashima, you've got electrodes on your arms, haven't you?
0:54:51 > 0:54:53So that suggests you might be
0:54:53 > 0:54:56receiving that information via painful electrical shock.
0:54:56 > 0:55:00And we're also going to need you to wear this blindfold,
0:55:00 > 0:55:02so we definitely know that you can
0:55:02 > 0:55:06only be getting the information through the signals to your arms.
0:55:06 > 0:55:08And you're going to press one of these two buttons,
0:55:08 > 0:55:09depending on if it's your left
0:55:09 > 0:55:13or your right arm that is getting the signal.
0:55:13 > 0:55:15- Sure.- OK.
0:55:17 > 0:55:19We've been testing this all day,
0:55:19 > 0:55:21we've got nine results now,
0:55:21 > 0:55:22and we're going to run the tenth
0:55:22 > 0:55:25and final trial here.
0:55:25 > 0:55:27For this last trial I need a
0:55:27 > 0:55:30volunteer to select a message that we're going to send to Hannah.
0:55:30 > 0:55:32Yellow or red?
0:55:32 > 0:55:34OK. Can I ask you?
0:55:35 > 0:55:36Just pick one of those.
0:55:38 > 0:55:42Don't open it. This is the one you picked, get rid of that one.
0:55:43 > 0:55:46Thank you.
0:55:46 > 0:55:48Now, I'm going to give this to Natalie,
0:55:48 > 0:55:49she's going to run this down to Hannah,
0:55:49 > 0:55:52and she's going to show it to Hannah,
0:55:52 > 0:55:54and we don't know what this says.
0:55:54 > 0:55:57So what the computer is going to do is try and decode the activity in
0:55:57 > 0:56:00Hannah's brain, and send this to Rashima's arms.
0:56:00 > 0:56:02OK. Natalie,
0:56:02 > 0:56:05can I just give you this? Have a very quick look.
0:56:05 > 0:56:07Thank you very much.
0:56:07 > 0:56:11When Hannah gets the paper she'll look at the chosen colour,
0:56:11 > 0:56:13and the computer will interpret her brainwaves
0:56:13 > 0:56:17and stimulate either Rashima's right or left arm.
0:56:17 > 0:56:19There is Hannah.
0:56:21 > 0:56:23OK, so Hannah is going to look at the screen,
0:56:23 > 0:56:26she's looking at one of those two squares.
0:56:33 > 0:56:36Which button is it going to be?
0:56:36 > 0:56:39Red. Amazing, it's right.
0:56:39 > 0:56:41Fantastic.
0:56:45 > 0:56:49That makes ten out of ten successful trials we've run today.
0:56:49 > 0:56:53And I think that definitely deserves a very big finish.
0:56:53 > 0:56:56So what we're going to do is blow some stuff up.
0:56:56 > 0:56:59This is going to be some noise.
0:56:59 > 0:57:02Count me down, three, two, one...
0:57:13 > 0:57:17I love the smell of burning balloons.
0:57:17 > 0:57:19It smells like science!
0:57:19 > 0:57:21Now, this is just a teeny,
0:57:21 > 0:57:23tiny step towards the idea of being
0:57:23 > 0:57:26able to send information directly from brain to brain.
0:57:26 > 0:57:29We are nowhere near being able to communicate complex
0:57:29 > 0:57:31thoughts via an electrical signal.
0:57:31 > 0:57:34The average adult, for example, knows 35,000 words.
0:57:34 > 0:57:36You would need a lot of electrodes
0:57:36 > 0:57:40to be able to know which one of those that person was thinking of.
0:57:40 > 0:57:44But every science has to start somewhere.
0:57:44 > 0:57:47And maybe NASA weren't that far off
0:57:47 > 0:57:51the mark with their recording for the aliens.
0:57:51 > 0:57:53What I hope I've shown in this lecture is that we
0:57:53 > 0:57:54and other animals already
0:57:54 > 0:57:57communicate vast amounts of information in a
0:57:57 > 0:57:58huge variety of ways,
0:57:58 > 0:58:01without ever opening our mouths.
0:58:01 > 0:58:05Now, we humans, we might not be using smells to communicate,
0:58:05 > 0:58:06but we've replaced that with
0:58:06 > 0:58:10an incredible ability to exchange messages with our bodies,
0:58:10 > 0:58:13our faces, and our eyes.
0:58:13 > 0:58:18If you can't pick up on this world of silent signals and hidden codes,
0:58:18 > 0:58:23then you are definitely not getting the full story.
0:58:23 > 0:58:24Thank you.