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Ice is one of the most mesmerising and beguiling substances in the world. | 0:00:07 | 0:00:12 | |
It's very familiar and yet never ceases to be other-worldly. | 0:00:14 | 0:00:19 | |
Always a little bit strange. | 0:00:19 | 0:00:22 | |
Ice is full of contradictions. | 0:00:26 | 0:00:28 | |
It's transparent | 0:00:28 | 0:00:30 | |
but it can glow with colour like nothing on earth. | 0:00:30 | 0:00:33 | |
It's powerful enough to shatter rock and sink ships. | 0:00:33 | 0:00:36 | |
But can just melt away in the blink of an eye. | 0:00:37 | 0:00:41 | |
I'm Dr Gabrielle Walker. | 0:00:47 | 0:00:50 | |
I trained as a chemist, but now I'm a science writer. | 0:00:50 | 0:00:54 | |
And for a long time, I've been obsessed by ice. | 0:00:54 | 0:00:58 | |
Ever since I first set foot on Arctic sea ice, | 0:00:59 | 0:01:01 | |
I've been drawn back year after year. | 0:01:01 | 0:01:03 | |
I've been trying to discover the secrets hidden deep within ice. | 0:01:05 | 0:01:11 | |
I think the ice crystal has something extraordinary to reveal | 0:01:11 | 0:01:14 | |
about how the world works. | 0:01:14 | 0:01:16 | |
How it does that | 0:01:16 | 0:01:19 | |
and what it tells us is what I want to explore in this programme. | 0:01:19 | 0:01:23 | |
-This is it. -Wow! | 0:01:23 | 0:01:25 | |
-Welcome to Nigarsbreen. -It's magnificent! | 0:01:25 | 0:01:29 | |
I'm going to find out how something so ephemeral is powerful enough to carve solid rock. | 0:01:29 | 0:01:36 | |
How ice has led to the evolution of some of the most extraordinary creatures on our planet. | 0:01:37 | 0:01:43 | |
This is a really small one. | 0:01:43 | 0:01:45 | |
How ice in space might lead us to discover extra-terrestrial life. | 0:01:46 | 0:01:51 | |
If we've got an ocean underneath the surface of the moon, | 0:01:51 | 0:01:56 | |
that's a place to search for life. | 0:01:56 | 0:01:58 | |
And how its astonishing ability to store ancient atmospheres | 0:01:58 | 0:02:02 | |
is helping us understand our climate. | 0:02:02 | 0:02:05 | |
When they invaded Britain in 1066, this is the air they were breathing! | 0:02:06 | 0:02:10 | |
Do your worst! | 0:02:10 | 0:02:12 | |
And I reveal how its power to preserve our past | 0:02:13 | 0:02:17 | |
and inform our future | 0:02:17 | 0:02:18 | |
lies deep within the ice crystal. | 0:02:18 | 0:02:21 | |
First of all, I've come to southern Norway... | 0:02:36 | 0:02:39 | |
..to visit an enormous glacier called Jostedalsbreen. | 0:02:40 | 0:02:44 | |
It's the biggest piece of ice in continental Europe. | 0:02:48 | 0:02:51 | |
It covers nearly 500 square kilometres of mountain. | 0:02:53 | 0:02:56 | |
Glaciers are one of the most powerful forces in nature. | 0:03:03 | 0:03:07 | |
They turn fragile ice into enormous grinding machines | 0:03:07 | 0:03:12 | |
that can erode mountains. | 0:03:12 | 0:03:14 | |
I'm going to explore one of Jostedalsbreen's many glacial tongues, Nigardsbreen. | 0:03:18 | 0:03:24 | |
I'm meeting local glaciologist, Evan Lowe. | 0:03:25 | 0:03:29 | |
Hello, Evan! | 0:03:29 | 0:03:31 | |
-Hello. Welcome to Jostedalsbreen. -Thank you. | 0:03:31 | 0:03:33 | |
Gosh, it's gorgeous! | 0:03:33 | 0:03:35 | |
We have a kayak to take us across the lake. | 0:03:35 | 0:03:38 | |
I want to find out exactly what makes glaciers so powerful. | 0:03:47 | 0:03:51 | |
How something as malleable as ice | 0:03:52 | 0:03:54 | |
can carve out such a spectacular landscape. | 0:03:54 | 0:03:58 | |
From the sculpted walls of the valley | 0:03:58 | 0:04:00 | |
to the colour of the lake. | 0:04:00 | 0:04:02 | |
-And full speed onto land. -Full speed. | 0:04:10 | 0:04:13 | |
Even though it's just ten per cent of the Jostedalsbreen's glacier, | 0:04:18 | 0:04:22 | |
Nigardsbreen covers nearly 50 square kilometres of mountain. | 0:04:22 | 0:04:27 | |
It rises steeply to almost two kilometres above sea level. | 0:04:27 | 0:04:31 | |
Down here in the valley, where the temperatures are warmer than in the high mountains, | 0:04:35 | 0:04:39 | |
the glacier melts abruptly in a ragged wall. | 0:04:39 | 0:04:42 | |
It's only when you get this much ice that you can witness something spectacular. | 0:04:44 | 0:04:49 | |
-This is it! -Wow! | 0:04:49 | 0:04:51 | |
'Its full range of colours.' | 0:04:51 | 0:04:53 | |
It's magnificent! The blue colour is absolutely amazing. | 0:04:53 | 0:04:58 | |
It's like looking into the heart of the glacier. | 0:04:58 | 0:05:01 | |
Yes, it goes from completely white and all the way to very dark blue, | 0:05:01 | 0:05:06 | |
depending on how the light hits the surface | 0:05:06 | 0:05:09 | |
and how far into the ice the light penetrates | 0:05:09 | 0:05:12 | |
before it's reflected to us. | 0:05:12 | 0:05:15 | |
The surface of the glacier looks white | 0:05:20 | 0:05:22 | |
because its jagged crystals are deflecting sunlight in all directions. | 0:05:22 | 0:05:26 | |
Close up, the ice seems transparent. | 0:05:28 | 0:05:31 | |
But it's not. | 0:05:31 | 0:05:33 | |
Pure ice crystals absorb light at the red end of the spectrum. | 0:05:33 | 0:05:38 | |
So as sunlight travels deeper into the ice, | 0:05:40 | 0:05:42 | |
a new blue light is reflected back. | 0:05:42 | 0:05:45 | |
When it's in a huge chunk like a glacier, it looks blue. | 0:05:50 | 0:05:54 | |
But if you grab a chunk of it, it's just white, ordinary boring ice! | 0:05:54 | 0:05:59 | |
Ice is never boring. Never, ever! | 0:05:59 | 0:06:01 | |
The ice in this front wall is at the end of its journey down the mountain. | 0:06:04 | 0:06:09 | |
It's now at the point of melting away. | 0:06:09 | 0:06:12 | |
Every moment it's changing, | 0:06:12 | 0:06:15 | |
like a moving sculpture. | 0:06:15 | 0:06:17 | |
Melt water is raining down on me | 0:06:22 | 0:06:24 | |
and it's making the most amazing shapes. | 0:06:24 | 0:06:27 | |
You can see it's eating into the walls here | 0:06:27 | 0:06:30 | |
and making all these curves and round parts | 0:06:30 | 0:06:33 | |
and that's why it looks like the moon outside with all those incredible curves. | 0:06:33 | 0:06:38 | |
It's beautiful. | 0:06:38 | 0:06:39 | |
Although glacial ice is a solid, | 0:06:46 | 0:06:48 | |
it actually flows like a river. | 0:06:48 | 0:06:50 | |
It's incredible to think that this much ice | 0:06:50 | 0:06:53 | |
is constantly on the move. | 0:06:53 | 0:06:55 | |
I've been climbing up to see what drives the glacier. | 0:06:57 | 0:07:00 | |
And it's the phenomenal weight of this enormous ice pack, | 0:07:02 | 0:07:06 | |
over nine kilometres long, | 0:07:06 | 0:07:07 | |
and up to 500 metres deep. | 0:07:07 | 0:07:10 | |
Millions of tonnes of ice crammed into this valley. | 0:07:10 | 0:07:15 | |
Built up from layer upon layer of snow, | 0:07:18 | 0:07:20 | |
this monumental river of ice is constantly being topped up | 0:07:20 | 0:07:25 | |
by fresh snowfall. | 0:07:25 | 0:07:26 | |
And that keeps it flowing downhill. | 0:07:26 | 0:07:29 | |
It makes very slow progress. But there is a way to see it move. | 0:07:30 | 0:07:35 | |
A time-lapse camera shows that Nigardsbreen's surface ice | 0:07:45 | 0:07:49 | |
travels at around 275 metres per year, | 0:07:49 | 0:07:53 | |
carving away the rock as it goes. | 0:07:53 | 0:07:56 | |
When you're here, the only clues you see of the glacier's movement | 0:08:03 | 0:08:07 | |
are crevasses. | 0:08:07 | 0:08:09 | |
Deep gashes that split open the surface of the ice. | 0:08:10 | 0:08:13 | |
These open up at the top of the ice. | 0:08:15 | 0:08:17 | |
One of the reasons is the top of the ice is brittle and tough. | 0:08:17 | 0:08:21 | |
Further down, where it's been squeezed, it's plastic and soft. | 0:08:21 | 0:08:25 | |
But as the glacier moves, the brittle part breaks open | 0:08:25 | 0:08:28 | |
and creates these great crevasses. | 0:08:28 | 0:08:30 | |
When a crevasse has opened up in the ice, melt water can gather in it | 0:08:34 | 0:08:37 | |
and start hollowing its way down towards the bedrock. | 0:08:37 | 0:08:41 | |
Here, it carves out a hidden world of icy caverns deep within the glacier. | 0:08:43 | 0:08:48 | |
I'm going to try to abseil right into the heart of the glacier | 0:08:51 | 0:08:57 | |
to see for myself how it moves. | 0:08:57 | 0:08:59 | |
That was amazing! | 0:09:10 | 0:09:12 | |
We're in the engine room of the glacier. | 0:09:18 | 0:09:20 | |
You can see just down here right where the ice melts the ground. | 0:09:20 | 0:09:25 | |
And this is where everything important happens. | 0:09:25 | 0:09:28 | |
I'm getting wet with the melting water, | 0:09:28 | 0:09:31 | |
but it's that that helps the glacier slide on its belly, | 0:09:31 | 0:09:34 | |
one of the things that makes it so dynamic. | 0:09:34 | 0:09:37 | |
Nigardsbreen's temperate mountain climate | 0:09:39 | 0:09:41 | |
means the ice at the lower end of the glacier exists very close to melting point. | 0:09:41 | 0:09:47 | |
As well as the melt water flowing beneath the ice, | 0:09:48 | 0:09:51 | |
which helps lubricate the glacier on its journey down the mountain, | 0:09:51 | 0:09:55 | |
there's melt water within the ice itself, | 0:09:55 | 0:09:58 | |
seeping out of these walls. | 0:09:58 | 0:10:01 | |
That melting water also makes this cave, and other caves like it all around. | 0:10:02 | 0:10:07 | |
I bet this cave wasn't here last year and it probably won't be here next. | 0:10:07 | 0:10:11 | |
It's transient, part of the signs that the glacier is dynamic | 0:10:11 | 0:10:16 | |
and moving and changing all the time. | 0:10:16 | 0:10:19 | |
When you look at the slick blue ice in these caves, | 0:10:27 | 0:10:30 | |
it's hard to imagine it began its life as snowflakes. | 0:10:30 | 0:10:33 | |
But hundreds of years of compression | 0:10:35 | 0:10:37 | |
have gradually turned it into this glittering mass of ice crystals. | 0:10:37 | 0:10:41 | |
Look at that! | 0:10:47 | 0:10:49 | |
The sides of the ice here are just like they were in the cave. | 0:10:49 | 0:10:52 | |
They really look like solid squashed together lumps and cubes. | 0:10:52 | 0:10:57 | |
And here you can really see that. | 0:10:57 | 0:11:00 | |
Like someone's taken a bunch of cubes and squeezed them together. | 0:11:00 | 0:11:04 | |
And that's what I'm walking on. Like walking on a giant Slushie! | 0:11:05 | 0:11:09 | |
Every single one of these ice crystals has an unusual property. | 0:11:16 | 0:11:20 | |
If you throw them into water, they float. | 0:11:21 | 0:11:25 | |
That's something we take completely for granted. | 0:11:26 | 0:11:29 | |
But it's incredibly rare in nature. | 0:11:29 | 0:11:32 | |
It's what helps to make ice special. | 0:11:34 | 0:11:37 | |
And what gives it the power to transform our world. | 0:11:37 | 0:11:41 | |
The secret lies at the heart of the ice crystal. | 0:11:46 | 0:11:49 | |
I'm going to witness the very instant it forms, | 0:11:50 | 0:11:54 | |
with chemist and fellow ice enthusiast, Dr Andrea Sella. | 0:11:54 | 0:12:00 | |
Ice breaks all the rules that we learn. | 0:12:01 | 0:12:05 | |
Andrea believes this moment is key to understanding the mysterious world of the ice crystal | 0:12:05 | 0:12:10 | |
because of the curious way that water turns from liquid to solid ice. | 0:12:10 | 0:12:17 | |
Let me show you something really amazing. | 0:12:17 | 0:12:19 | |
We've got some mineral water here that we've been cooling for a bit. | 0:12:19 | 0:12:23 | |
I want you to take these bottles quite gingerly. | 0:12:23 | 0:12:26 | |
-Take this and bang it on the table. -Just bang it? -Bang it. | 0:12:26 | 0:12:29 | |
-There it goes! Look at that! -Instant ice! | 0:12:30 | 0:12:33 | |
It's spreading out these fingers and shards of ice all the way down. | 0:12:33 | 0:12:37 | |
It's quite amazing. You can see the crystals growing before your very eyes! | 0:12:37 | 0:12:41 | |
Ice is a crystal in which the water molecules are very carefully arranged. | 0:12:45 | 0:12:49 | |
If you think of guards on parade, | 0:12:49 | 0:12:52 | |
all lined up in neat rows, that's what a crystal is, and that's what ice is. | 0:12:52 | 0:12:57 | |
Like any crystal, ice doesn't form spontaneously, | 0:13:00 | 0:13:05 | |
even in this super-cooled water, | 0:13:05 | 0:13:07 | |
which is well below zero degrees centigrade. | 0:13:07 | 0:13:10 | |
It needs a seed, a template. | 0:13:10 | 0:13:13 | |
You need someone to kind of blow the whistle | 0:13:16 | 0:13:19 | |
and provide an initial point, saying start here. | 0:13:19 | 0:13:22 | |
-So I bang it, you get bubbles and each of those bubbles is a place for the crystals to form. -Absolutely. | 0:13:23 | 0:13:29 | |
You can do it in other ways, too. | 0:13:30 | 0:13:33 | |
Take another bottle, and this time what we'll do | 0:13:33 | 0:13:36 | |
is try dropping another piece of ice into it. | 0:13:36 | 0:13:39 | |
Just pop it in. | 0:13:39 | 0:13:41 | |
Ready, steady... | 0:13:41 | 0:13:43 | |
It's really the ice which is acting as the initial starting point | 0:13:45 | 0:13:49 | |
on which the rest of the ice grows. | 0:13:49 | 0:13:51 | |
It's the way the ice crystal forms that is the key to why it floats. | 0:14:00 | 0:14:04 | |
Water molecules are loosely held together by bonds | 0:14:07 | 0:14:10 | |
which are constantly making and breaking. | 0:14:10 | 0:14:13 | |
When the temperature drops to zero, | 0:14:13 | 0:14:16 | |
these bonds begin to hold. Fast. | 0:14:16 | 0:14:19 | |
Creating a hexagonal lattice, an ice crystal. | 0:14:19 | 0:14:23 | |
In the lattice, the bonds hold the molecules far apart. | 0:14:27 | 0:14:31 | |
It's that sudden opening out | 0:14:32 | 0:14:34 | |
that makes ice lighter, less dense, than liquid water. | 0:14:34 | 0:14:38 | |
In water, the approaches are quite close. | 0:14:41 | 0:14:43 | |
When we get to ice, suddenly it expands a bit. | 0:14:43 | 0:14:46 | |
And we end up with a strangely spacious open structure | 0:14:46 | 0:14:51 | |
which is less dense and therefore it floats. | 0:14:51 | 0:14:55 | |
It's really quite miraculous. | 0:14:55 | 0:14:56 | |
-That's all down to the structure of the crystal? -Absolutely. | 0:14:56 | 0:15:00 | |
Ice is incredibly special. | 0:15:00 | 0:15:02 | |
The irony is that to us it's completely common. | 0:15:02 | 0:15:05 | |
We take an ice cube and drop it into a drink and it floats. | 0:15:05 | 0:15:09 | |
Well, it is almost unique | 0:15:09 | 0:15:11 | |
in the enormous, the millions of compounds and materials that we know about, | 0:15:11 | 0:15:16 | |
in being a solid that floats on its melt. | 0:15:16 | 0:15:19 | |
If ice didn't float, the world would be a very different place. | 0:15:26 | 0:15:31 | |
Instead of forming on the surface of the ocean, | 0:15:32 | 0:15:35 | |
allowing marine life to survive beneath, | 0:15:35 | 0:15:39 | |
ice would form on the sea bed, | 0:15:39 | 0:15:42 | |
oceans would freeze from the bottom up | 0:15:42 | 0:15:45 | |
and life as we know it might never have evolved at all. | 0:15:45 | 0:15:49 | |
We also wouldn't have developed an elegant British pastime | 0:15:53 | 0:15:58 | |
that began on frozen lakes and rivers hundreds of years ago. | 0:15:58 | 0:16:02 | |
Every Sunday morning, members of the Royal Skating Club | 0:16:10 | 0:16:14 | |
meet at Guildford ice rink to skate in what is called "the English style". | 0:16:14 | 0:16:19 | |
Once considered England's highest form of skating art, | 0:16:23 | 0:16:27 | |
"the English style" originates from the early 19th century. | 0:16:27 | 0:16:31 | |
It combines a Victorian sense of elegance and understatement | 0:16:31 | 0:16:35 | |
with a high level of skill. | 0:16:35 | 0:16:38 | |
Around a centre marked by an orange, | 0:16:38 | 0:16:41 | |
the skaters perform perfectly-shaped geometric figures | 0:16:41 | 0:16:45 | |
in absolute unison, holding their bodies stiff and straight. | 0:16:45 | 0:16:52 | |
Centre change, sub circle. | 0:16:52 | 0:16:55 | |
In keeping with the Victorian horror of showing off, | 0:16:58 | 0:17:02 | |
the challenge is to make these complex manoeuvres look graceful | 0:17:02 | 0:17:06 | |
and effortless. | 0:17:06 | 0:17:08 | |
These are lovely. | 0:17:12 | 0:17:13 | |
Elaine Hooper, historian for the National Ice Skating Association, | 0:17:13 | 0:17:18 | |
has some Victorian pictures of the English Style. | 0:17:18 | 0:17:21 | |
It was very much a more polite style of skating. It was very dignified. | 0:17:21 | 0:17:26 | |
The ladies had long dresses and big hats on and the men had top hats in Victorian times. | 0:17:26 | 0:17:32 | |
That was the style of skating | 0:17:32 | 0:17:34 | |
that evolved on the frozen lakes and rivers | 0:17:34 | 0:17:37 | |
as early as the 1600s. | 0:17:37 | 0:17:39 | |
Over the years, different moves were added when people wanted to make it more difficult. | 0:17:39 | 0:17:45 | |
The English Style developed amongst the upper classes | 0:17:47 | 0:17:50 | |
while Britain was experiencing what became known as "the little ice age". | 0:17:50 | 0:17:54 | |
From the 13th century to the middle of the 19th century, | 0:17:54 | 0:17:59 | |
British winters were up to two degrees cooler. | 0:17:59 | 0:18:03 | |
Many lakes and rivers regularly froze over. | 0:18:03 | 0:18:06 | |
Pepys himself talks about skating with Nell Gwyn on the Thames | 0:18:08 | 0:18:12 | |
in one of the great frost fairs where they would roast hogs and skate. | 0:18:12 | 0:18:17 | |
It was just a way of life then. It was much colder. | 0:18:17 | 0:18:20 | |
The Thames doesn't tend to freeze over now so we can't have that again. | 0:18:20 | 0:18:24 | |
We can skate because of another quality of ice. | 0:18:30 | 0:18:32 | |
Its slipperiness. | 0:18:32 | 0:18:34 | |
This may seem completely normal, but it's actually very rare for a solid. | 0:18:39 | 0:18:43 | |
The reason we can skate is to do with what happens when ice is squeezed by a blade. | 0:18:47 | 0:18:52 | |
The way it reacts to pressure. | 0:18:54 | 0:18:56 | |
So Andrea Sella and I are going to put ice under a lot of pressure | 0:19:01 | 0:19:05 | |
in a classic experiment. | 0:19:05 | 0:19:07 | |
OK, we need to lift it up and get it onto our platform. | 0:19:09 | 0:19:15 | |
-It is pretty heavy. -I'm strong, don't worry! | 0:19:15 | 0:19:17 | |
Good. There we are. | 0:19:17 | 0:19:19 | |
So now we need to unpack things. | 0:19:19 | 0:19:22 | |
-Ooh, that's lovely! -Gorgeous! | 0:19:24 | 0:19:26 | |
I'll lift it and you pull. | 0:19:28 | 0:19:30 | |
That's great. | 0:19:30 | 0:19:31 | |
What we're going to do is sling this wire over the top | 0:19:33 | 0:19:37 | |
and hang these two really rather heavy weights, | 0:19:37 | 0:19:42 | |
we're talking about seven kilos here. | 0:19:42 | 0:19:45 | |
There we go. | 0:19:45 | 0:19:46 | |
It's now suspended. | 0:19:46 | 0:19:49 | |
What we have to do is wait for the pressure of the wire | 0:19:49 | 0:19:53 | |
to work its magic on the ice. | 0:19:53 | 0:19:55 | |
As we wait, the wire works its way through the ice. | 0:20:01 | 0:20:04 | |
Almost cutting it in two. | 0:20:04 | 0:20:06 | |
And behind the wire, the ice is sealing up again. | 0:20:08 | 0:20:11 | |
Something very strange is going on. | 0:20:11 | 0:20:14 | |
It's amazing. Look at it! | 0:20:19 | 0:20:21 | |
So how's it gone through the ice like this? | 0:20:21 | 0:20:23 | |
Of course, the wire has the weight on it. And because the wire's very thin, | 0:20:23 | 0:20:29 | |
what it does is apply really quite a large pressure | 0:20:29 | 0:20:32 | |
on a local area of the ice. | 0:20:32 | 0:20:34 | |
We know that ice expands when it freezes | 0:20:34 | 0:20:37 | |
so if you squeeze it, you can drive it back towards that molten state. | 0:20:37 | 0:20:42 | |
So when you put pressure on it, it turns it back to water. | 0:20:42 | 0:20:45 | |
You can re-melt it back to water. | 0:20:45 | 0:20:47 | |
That's one of the key reasons we can skate. | 0:20:51 | 0:20:54 | |
The pressure of the blades is enough to melt the top layer of ice into water | 0:20:54 | 0:20:59 | |
which lubricates the skates. | 0:20:59 | 0:21:02 | |
Friction can also help melt the ice. | 0:21:04 | 0:21:07 | |
In our experiment, as the wire passed through the block, | 0:21:09 | 0:21:13 | |
the ice sealed up behind. | 0:21:13 | 0:21:16 | |
This shows how ice can engulf something solid | 0:21:16 | 0:21:21 | |
leaving barely a trace. | 0:21:21 | 0:21:23 | |
I was expecting the wire to cut through it. And it's completely sealed. | 0:21:25 | 0:21:30 | |
-It looks as though it ought to fall apart. -It's an extraordinary process. | 0:21:30 | 0:21:35 | |
Effectively, underneath the wire, the ice melts | 0:21:35 | 0:21:39 | |
and then behind it, it re-freezes again. | 0:21:39 | 0:21:42 | |
So this whole process is making the ice | 0:21:42 | 0:21:44 | |
move between those two points on that knife-edge between liquid and solid. | 0:21:44 | 0:21:48 | |
The pressure squeezes it, | 0:21:48 | 0:21:51 | |
-take the pressure off and it freezes again. -Absolutely. | 0:21:51 | 0:21:54 | |
This formidable ability to swallow up another solid | 0:21:58 | 0:22:02 | |
is a real insight into just how peculiar ice is. | 0:22:02 | 0:22:05 | |
It also explains how ice can do seemingly impossible things | 0:22:05 | 0:22:11 | |
in nature. | 0:22:11 | 0:22:13 | |
In Norway, at the foot of Nigardsbreen, | 0:22:20 | 0:22:23 | |
glaciologist Evan Lowe has some local stories to tell | 0:22:23 | 0:22:27 | |
of how glaciers can engulf things much bigger than a thin metal wire. | 0:22:27 | 0:22:32 | |
From where we're sitting now we can see a place where a farm used to be, 250 years ago. | 0:22:33 | 0:22:40 | |
Until it was knocked down by this glacier behind us | 0:22:40 | 0:22:45 | |
and all the buildings and farm were just swallowed by the glacier. | 0:22:45 | 0:22:49 | |
If something goes into the ice, what happens to it? | 0:22:49 | 0:22:52 | |
A bit further south, there's a plane with a pilot who crashed in the '70s | 0:22:52 | 0:22:56 | |
on top of the glacier. | 0:22:56 | 0:22:58 | |
Before the rescuers could get there, the whole thing was covered by snow. | 0:22:58 | 0:23:03 | |
And it never appeared again. | 0:23:03 | 0:23:06 | |
Some guy calculated that it should come out of the glacier | 0:23:06 | 0:23:10 | |
some 25 years later, but they're still waiting for it. | 0:23:10 | 0:23:15 | |
-No-one's seen any trace of it. -So there's a plane, body and everything. | 0:23:15 | 0:23:20 | |
Somewhere! | 0:23:20 | 0:23:21 | |
That's a spooky ghost story to tell just before bed! | 0:23:21 | 0:23:25 | |
When it comes to a glacier shaping the landscape, | 0:23:37 | 0:23:39 | |
this ability of ice to absorb things | 0:23:39 | 0:23:42 | |
is a real secret to its strength. | 0:23:42 | 0:23:44 | |
Ice on its own is far too fragile to leave any mark on solid rock. | 0:23:47 | 0:23:52 | |
It can only carve out a valley by picking up tools. | 0:23:52 | 0:23:55 | |
The ice engulfs rocks and boulders as it moves down the mountainside. | 0:23:58 | 0:24:04 | |
They pass through the ice and get dragged along in its underbelly. | 0:24:04 | 0:24:08 | |
Together they scrape and chip away at the rock beneath. | 0:24:08 | 0:24:13 | |
It's easy to imagine that this was once just one big mountain. | 0:24:16 | 0:24:21 | |
And now all this space that we are in now | 0:24:21 | 0:24:25 | |
is the result of the glacier | 0:24:25 | 0:24:27 | |
taking its bites like this during thousands of years. | 0:24:27 | 0:24:32 | |
I like the way you say, "taking bites". The rocks are the teeth of the glacier | 0:24:32 | 0:24:37 | |
and that's what it's using to grind away. | 0:24:37 | 0:24:39 | |
It's still doing it up there, making the valley bigger and wider. | 0:24:39 | 0:24:44 | |
If it were some other solid like steel or rock, | 0:24:44 | 0:24:48 | |
it would just sit there. It couldn't do this. | 0:24:48 | 0:24:51 | |
That's one of the secrets of the ice | 0:24:51 | 0:24:53 | |
that it's strong enough to carry big rocks to work on the surface | 0:24:53 | 0:24:56 | |
but it's also soft enough to move. | 0:24:56 | 0:24:59 | |
Over the thousands of years that Nigardsbreen has been advancing and retreating, | 0:25:08 | 0:25:14 | |
it's been grinding down the rock | 0:25:14 | 0:25:16 | |
like an enormous sheet of sand paper. | 0:25:16 | 0:25:18 | |
Gradually, it's turned boulders and bedrock into dust so fine | 0:25:20 | 0:25:25 | |
that when it's washed into the lake, | 0:25:25 | 0:25:27 | |
it remains suspended there. | 0:25:27 | 0:25:29 | |
And it's the minerals in this dust | 0:25:29 | 0:25:32 | |
that give the lake its colour. | 0:25:32 | 0:25:35 | |
So that piece of ice there has done everything. | 0:25:47 | 0:25:49 | |
It's shaped and smoothed these rocks | 0:25:49 | 0:25:52 | |
and it's made these scrape marks and teeth marks | 0:25:52 | 0:25:54 | |
and down there, the bigger boulders and the pebbles and the silt | 0:25:54 | 0:26:00 | |
all the way through to the colour of the lake, | 0:26:00 | 0:26:02 | |
even the shape of the valley, | 0:26:02 | 0:26:04 | |
everything about everything I see has been dictated and defined by the ice. | 0:26:04 | 0:26:08 | |
But ice itself is ruled by temperature. | 0:26:16 | 0:26:19 | |
That's what determines everything from how long it lasts | 0:26:20 | 0:26:24 | |
to how and where it forms. | 0:26:24 | 0:26:26 | |
And nowhere is this more true than in the sky, | 0:26:26 | 0:26:30 | |
where ice is at its most unpredictable. | 0:26:30 | 0:26:33 | |
Clouds are usually made of water vapour. | 0:26:36 | 0:26:38 | |
But if it's cold enough, you can get clouds entirely made of ice crystals. | 0:26:38 | 0:26:43 | |
When you get ice in the sky, that can cause havoc with the weather. | 0:26:43 | 0:26:46 | |
One of the most treacherous forms of icy weather | 0:26:50 | 0:26:53 | |
is an ice storm. | 0:26:53 | 0:26:55 | |
11 Canadians have been killed and two million are without electricity | 0:26:58 | 0:27:02 | |
after devastating ice storms swept the country. | 0:27:02 | 0:27:05 | |
In 1998, eastern Canada was hit by a massive ice storm, | 0:27:05 | 0:27:10 | |
its worst on record. | 0:27:10 | 0:27:12 | |
Over five days, freezing rain turned into a slick glaze of ice | 0:27:15 | 0:27:20 | |
and built up to 7.5 centimetres thick in some places. | 0:27:20 | 0:27:24 | |
It became heavy enough to bring down trees and power lines. | 0:27:27 | 0:27:32 | |
The ice storm forced the government to declare a state of emergency. | 0:27:35 | 0:27:40 | |
Ice storms can begin high in the atmosphere. | 0:27:48 | 0:27:53 | |
Here, ice crystals grow into delicate snowflakes | 0:27:55 | 0:27:59 | |
with stunningly symmetrical branches. | 0:27:59 | 0:28:02 | |
If snowflakes fall into a warmer band of air, | 0:28:07 | 0:28:11 | |
they'll melt away into rain. | 0:28:11 | 0:28:14 | |
But in the unusual circumstances that lead to an ice storm, | 0:28:14 | 0:28:18 | |
there's much colder air beneath this warm layer | 0:28:18 | 0:28:22 | |
and it's very close to the ground. | 0:28:22 | 0:28:24 | |
As the rain falls through this cold air, | 0:28:27 | 0:28:29 | |
it becomes super-cooled, | 0:28:29 | 0:28:31 | |
ready to freeze again in an instant. | 0:28:31 | 0:28:34 | |
It crystallises as soon as it touches something, | 0:28:35 | 0:28:38 | |
creating layer upon hazardous layer of ice. | 0:28:38 | 0:28:43 | |
MAN: Millions of people here in Montreal are affected. | 0:28:45 | 0:28:48 | |
-WOMAN: -It's like a war scene, almost. | 0:28:48 | 0:28:51 | |
We're going round house to house suggesting to people that it'll be a while before the power's back | 0:28:51 | 0:28:57 | |
and it might be wise to relocate to a shelter. | 0:28:57 | 0:29:01 | |
The damage cost the country 3 billion. | 0:29:05 | 0:29:07 | |
In some areas, the ice didn't melt for three months. | 0:29:07 | 0:29:11 | |
Temperature is truly the master of ice. | 0:29:22 | 0:29:25 | |
And there's a mysterious phenomenon called hot ice, | 0:29:25 | 0:29:29 | |
which freezes at room temperature. | 0:29:29 | 0:29:32 | |
Hot ice is created by putting water under enormous pressure, | 0:29:34 | 0:29:39 | |
far greater than any glacier on our planet. | 0:29:39 | 0:29:42 | |
This is ice that we wouldn't normally find anywhere on Earth. | 0:29:44 | 0:29:47 | |
Professor Paul Macmillan is going to show me how to make this high-pressure ice. | 0:29:52 | 0:29:57 | |
What we've got is a little drop of liquid water | 0:29:57 | 0:30:01 | |
and it's placed between two diamonds. | 0:30:01 | 0:30:03 | |
Inside here we've got two tiny diamonds that are pressing together. | 0:30:03 | 0:30:09 | |
You're going to turn this knob here very gently. | 0:30:09 | 0:30:12 | |
Because otherwise you'll force the two diamonds together too fast and they'll break. | 0:30:12 | 0:30:17 | |
I'll be very careful. | 0:30:17 | 0:30:19 | |
I'm about to put a tiny drop of water under more pressure | 0:30:21 | 0:30:24 | |
than occurs naturally anywhere on the Earth's surface. | 0:30:24 | 0:30:28 | |
When this gets to around 12, | 0:30:28 | 0:30:30 | |
-I want you to start to watch the screen. -OK. | 0:30:30 | 0:30:33 | |
-Nine and a half now. -Yes. | 0:30:33 | 0:30:35 | |
So what's happening is the pressure is going on | 0:30:35 | 0:30:38 | |
-and the diamonds are squeezing that drop of water. -Yes. | 0:30:38 | 0:30:41 | |
-It's close to 12. -I would slow it down just a wee bit. | 0:30:41 | 0:30:45 | |
At the moment this is liquid water, but it's really squeezed now. | 0:30:45 | 0:30:51 | |
The pressure's going up... | 0:30:51 | 0:30:53 | |
Look at that! | 0:30:53 | 0:30:55 | |
It's crystals! | 0:30:55 | 0:30:56 | |
-Yeah. -Oh, that is cool. -You've just made ice crystals in there. | 0:30:56 | 0:31:01 | |
They're growing as well, not just sitting there. | 0:31:01 | 0:31:03 | |
It's a whole faceful of tiny crystals. | 0:31:03 | 0:31:06 | |
The ice has formed even though it's way above zero degrees. | 0:31:08 | 0:31:12 | |
See the room temperature is 25 degrees. | 0:31:13 | 0:31:17 | |
-So we've made water freeze at 25 degrees C? -Yes. | 0:31:17 | 0:31:20 | |
These are icebergs floating in dense water. | 0:31:20 | 0:31:24 | |
'The hot ice is at a pressure of 15,000 atmospheres. | 0:31:26 | 0:31:29 | |
'That's 15 times more pressure | 0:31:29 | 0:31:33 | |
'than you find at the bottom of the deepest ocean on Earth.' | 0:31:33 | 0:31:37 | |
What would it be like, then? I know we can't take it out and look at it | 0:31:37 | 0:31:41 | |
or do things with it because it's under that pressure. | 0:31:41 | 0:31:43 | |
But how is it different from real, normal ice? | 0:31:43 | 0:31:46 | |
The first thing is that it doesn't melt at normal temperatures. | 0:31:46 | 0:31:51 | |
This one here, you'd have to take this up to well over 100 degrees centigrade | 0:31:51 | 0:31:58 | |
for it even to start to melt. | 0:31:58 | 0:32:00 | |
So you can go above boiling point and it doesn't melt? | 0:32:00 | 0:32:03 | |
Exactly. This is a high-density form of ice. | 0:32:03 | 0:32:06 | |
The structure is very like a little cube. | 0:32:06 | 0:32:10 | |
You would never get the hexagon snowflake shapes | 0:32:10 | 0:32:14 | |
that you get with normal ice. | 0:32:14 | 0:32:17 | |
'This kind of ice might occur naturally out in space.' | 0:32:17 | 0:32:22 | |
We think that it probably does exist in the solar system, | 0:32:23 | 0:32:28 | |
deep inside some of the icy moons out there | 0:32:28 | 0:32:32 | |
like Titan, which is the large moon of Saturn. | 0:32:32 | 0:32:36 | |
And we know that the pressure inside | 0:32:36 | 0:32:39 | |
gets to these pressure values. | 0:32:39 | 0:32:41 | |
-So it's like having a telescope to look into the heart of Saturn's moon. -Exactly. | 0:32:41 | 0:32:46 | |
We know already that the surfaces of some of the moons of Jupiter and Saturn | 0:32:49 | 0:32:53 | |
are covered in more normal ice, the type we're familiar with on Earth. | 0:32:53 | 0:32:58 | |
Recently, we've been able to get close enough to see it | 0:33:01 | 0:33:04 | |
in more detail. | 0:33:04 | 0:33:06 | |
And that's revealed something startling. | 0:33:06 | 0:33:09 | |
It might be protecting oceans of liquid water out in space. | 0:33:09 | 0:33:14 | |
Professor Michele Dougherty is a space physicist who explores these outer planets. | 0:33:17 | 0:33:22 | |
It was Jupiter's moon, Europa, | 0:33:27 | 0:33:29 | |
that first attracted her attention | 0:33:29 | 0:33:32 | |
thanks to a surprising photograph taken by the Galileo spacecraft. | 0:33:32 | 0:33:36 | |
This image shows us what looks like an ice shelf | 0:33:39 | 0:33:43 | |
which is floating on a liquid. | 0:33:43 | 0:33:45 | |
We could almost say it was the Antarctic or Greenland. | 0:33:45 | 0:33:49 | |
What you can clearly see are these icebergs which look as if they're moving around on the surface. | 0:33:49 | 0:33:55 | |
The only way for that to happen is for there to be liquid underneath | 0:33:55 | 0:33:59 | |
that's helping shift them around on the icy surface. | 0:33:59 | 0:34:02 | |
By studying data from Galileo, | 0:34:06 | 0:34:08 | |
scientists reckon that Europa's ice is covering an ocean | 0:34:08 | 0:34:12 | |
of liquid water. | 0:34:12 | 0:34:13 | |
If true, this will be an amazing discovery. | 0:34:17 | 0:34:20 | |
But frustratingly, there's no way yet of penetrating the surface | 0:34:20 | 0:34:25 | |
to confirm it. | 0:34:25 | 0:34:27 | |
However, in 1997, | 0:34:34 | 0:34:36 | |
an unmanned probe called Cassini | 0:34:36 | 0:34:39 | |
was sent into space. | 0:34:39 | 0:34:41 | |
Its mission, to explore Saturn, 700 million miles from Earth. | 0:34:42 | 0:34:48 | |
When it flew by a tiny ice-covered moon called Enceladus, | 0:34:50 | 0:34:55 | |
it gave a reading that Michele and her team simply couldn't explain. | 0:34:55 | 0:35:00 | |
So she asked the mission planners if Cassini could make a closer fly-by. | 0:35:01 | 0:35:07 | |
And this revealed a spectacle | 0:35:08 | 0:35:09 | |
that had never been seen before | 0:35:09 | 0:35:12 | |
anywhere in the solar system. | 0:35:12 | 0:35:14 | |
This is the image we took when we went really close to Enceladus. | 0:35:16 | 0:35:20 | |
You can clearly see this large plume of water vapour | 0:35:20 | 0:35:23 | |
coming off from the south pole. A gorgeous image! | 0:35:23 | 0:35:26 | |
As Cassini has shown us that water definitely exists under Enceladus's ice, | 0:35:26 | 0:35:32 | |
that makes it a fantastic place to search for evidence of extra-terrestrial life. | 0:35:32 | 0:35:38 | |
The reason that this discovery is so amazing | 0:35:39 | 0:35:43 | |
is that it's telling us there's water under the surface of Enceladus | 0:35:43 | 0:35:48 | |
and in the plume itself there is water vapour, | 0:35:48 | 0:35:51 | |
there are ice crystals | 0:35:51 | 0:35:53 | |
and there are organic compounds - nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen - | 0:35:53 | 0:35:56 | |
all the things that you need for the basic building blocks of life. | 0:35:56 | 0:36:00 | |
Michele and her colleagues are currently working on building much smaller probes | 0:36:02 | 0:36:07 | |
that will be able to analyse the plumes jetting out from Enceladus. | 0:36:07 | 0:36:11 | |
They'll look for more evidence of life. | 0:36:13 | 0:36:15 | |
Ice in space may bring us one step closer to finding out | 0:36:16 | 0:36:21 | |
if other life forms have evolved in our solar system. | 0:36:21 | 0:36:24 | |
Although icy environments even on our own planet | 0:36:40 | 0:36:43 | |
seem too hostile to support life, | 0:36:43 | 0:36:45 | |
in fact they can be a very favourable place for life to flourish. | 0:36:45 | 0:36:50 | |
Under the sea ice around the edges of the Antarctic continent, | 0:36:53 | 0:36:57 | |
at temperatures that would kill most living things, | 0:36:57 | 0:37:00 | |
live some of the most intriguing creatures on Earth. | 0:37:00 | 0:37:03 | |
In total, I've been to the Antarctic 13 times. | 0:37:05 | 0:37:08 | |
'At the laboratories of the British Antarctic Survey, | 0:37:08 | 0:37:12 | |
'Professor Lloyd Peck studies these creatures to find out | 0:37:12 | 0:37:16 | |
'just how they survive | 0:37:16 | 0:37:17 | |
'and what makes the icy ocean so advantageous for some forms of life.' | 0:37:17 | 0:37:22 | |
If we move down here, | 0:37:23 | 0:37:25 | |
we can see some of our really special animals. | 0:37:25 | 0:37:27 | |
These little fish are called the plunder fish. | 0:37:27 | 0:37:30 | |
I haven't seen this. | 0:37:30 | 0:37:32 | |
-That's a beauty! Is it all right? -Yeah, they're fine. | 0:37:32 | 0:37:36 | |
If a predator comes along, they open their mouth, push their gill cases out | 0:37:36 | 0:37:41 | |
and push their spines out to stop being eaten. | 0:37:41 | 0:37:43 | |
They breed in our tank. They're one of the classic types of Antarctic fish. | 0:37:43 | 0:37:49 | |
-How cold is it? -The water is below zero degrees. | 0:37:49 | 0:37:52 | |
But it's sea water so it doesn't freeze. | 0:37:52 | 0:37:54 | |
What you see here is, those animals living there | 0:37:54 | 0:37:57 | |
are permanently living below zero degrees. | 0:37:57 | 0:38:00 | |
-Why don't they freeze? -Well, the fish would freeze | 0:38:00 | 0:38:03 | |
except for the fact they've got antifreeze in their blood, their tissues and their bodies. | 0:38:03 | 0:38:08 | |
They need antifreeze to live in these temperatures. | 0:38:08 | 0:38:11 | |
-They have antifreeze in their blood? -They make their own antifreeze. They have antifreeze proteins. | 0:38:11 | 0:38:17 | |
There's antifreeze everywhere because without it, | 0:38:17 | 0:38:20 | |
ice crystals would grow inside their cells and inside their blood | 0:38:20 | 0:38:24 | |
and it would rip their tissues apart. | 0:38:24 | 0:38:26 | |
OK. I've got another animal here to show you. | 0:38:28 | 0:38:31 | |
This is a sea spider. | 0:38:31 | 0:38:33 | |
Oh, look at him! | 0:38:33 | 0:38:35 | |
In Antarctica, the sea spiders get really big. | 0:38:35 | 0:38:38 | |
The biggest ones are 40 centimetres from leg tip to leg tip. | 0:38:38 | 0:38:42 | |
-So that's twice the size of this one? -About twice the size. | 0:38:42 | 0:38:45 | |
And the biggest sea spiders in the Antarctic | 0:38:45 | 0:38:48 | |
are a thousand, maybe two thousand, three thousand times heavier | 0:38:48 | 0:38:51 | |
-than the biggest sea spiders in Europe. -Why do they get so big? | 0:38:51 | 0:38:55 | |
Well, the reason they get big is because it's cold! | 0:38:55 | 0:38:59 | |
Two things happen when sea water gets cold. | 0:38:59 | 0:39:02 | |
One is that the amount of oxygen you get in the water goes up. | 0:39:02 | 0:39:06 | |
There's nearly twice as much oxygen in the sea in Antarctica as in the tropics. | 0:39:06 | 0:39:11 | |
Because it's cold, their metabolic rates run much slower than animals elsewhere. | 0:39:11 | 0:39:16 | |
So it's like live cheaper, grow bigger? | 0:39:16 | 0:39:18 | |
Live cheaper, grow bigger. And it's not just the sea spiders. | 0:39:18 | 0:39:22 | |
This is a 40-arm starfish. | 0:39:22 | 0:39:25 | |
-Its Latin name is Labidiaster. -Oh, my God! | 0:39:25 | 0:39:29 | |
Have a hold of that. | 0:39:29 | 0:39:31 | |
OK? This is a really small one. | 0:39:31 | 0:39:33 | |
The big ones get up to 70, 80 centimetres across. They're huge. | 0:39:33 | 0:39:39 | |
They're one of the big predators in the Antarctic on the sea bed. | 0:39:39 | 0:39:43 | |
There's his stomach. They crawl over the top of animals, put their stomachs out and eat them. | 0:39:43 | 0:39:48 | |
What is it about the ice that makes all these weird adaptations and strange animals? | 0:39:49 | 0:39:54 | |
The ice helps keep the temperature constant in the seas. | 0:39:54 | 0:39:57 | |
What it's done is kept that temperature low and constant | 0:39:57 | 0:40:01 | |
for maybe 25 million years. | 0:40:01 | 0:40:03 | |
So it's not just cold, it's also steady. | 0:40:03 | 0:40:06 | |
It is. The Antarctic Ocean is possibly the most constant temperature place on Earth. | 0:40:06 | 0:40:11 | |
And it's been there for such a long time that animals have been able to adapt to it | 0:40:11 | 0:40:16 | |
in a very fine-scaled way, in a way that hasn't happened anywhere else on Earth. | 0:40:16 | 0:40:20 | |
These creatures are the product of a unique eco-system | 0:40:24 | 0:40:27 | |
that revolves around ice. | 0:40:27 | 0:40:30 | |
By studying how they managed not just to adapt, but to thrive, | 0:40:31 | 0:40:35 | |
we can learn about the impact of cold | 0:40:35 | 0:40:38 | |
and how well icy environments can support life. | 0:40:38 | 0:40:41 | |
Antarctica is the coldest, windiest continent on the planet. | 0:40:50 | 0:40:55 | |
It's covered by the largest single mass of ice on Earth. | 0:40:56 | 0:41:01 | |
Back in the 1950s, | 0:41:16 | 0:41:19 | |
a team of scientists set out with a seemingly impossible dream, | 0:41:19 | 0:41:22 | |
to discover how thick the Antarctic ice sheet was | 0:41:22 | 0:41:26 | |
and what might be lying beneath. | 0:41:26 | 0:41:29 | |
Part of that team was glaciologist, Dr Charles Swithinbank. | 0:41:32 | 0:41:37 | |
He's a legend in the world of Antarctic science. | 0:41:39 | 0:41:42 | |
He's spent a lifetime exploring the heart of the white continent. | 0:41:42 | 0:41:46 | |
-That's it. -That's you? | 0:41:48 | 0:41:50 | |
That's me. I was mad keen and always have been. | 0:41:50 | 0:41:53 | |
Here was a chance of real adventure and real exploring | 0:41:53 | 0:41:58 | |
in a really unknown part of the Antarctic. | 0:41:58 | 0:42:02 | |
It was Charles' job to try to measure the depth of the ice. | 0:42:06 | 0:42:09 | |
Taking a sled loaded with dynamite out onto the ice, | 0:42:10 | 0:42:14 | |
he and his colleagues set off an explosion at the surface. | 0:42:14 | 0:42:19 | |
They measured how long it took for its echo to bounce back. | 0:42:21 | 0:42:24 | |
From this, they could work out how far it had travelled | 0:42:24 | 0:42:28 | |
and how thick the ice sheet was. | 0:42:28 | 0:42:31 | |
We found thicknesses up to 2,500 metres. | 0:42:33 | 0:42:37 | |
That's nothing nowadays. People have found a lot deeper. | 0:42:37 | 0:42:42 | |
But it staggered us | 0:42:42 | 0:42:44 | |
because here we were, walking over solid ice | 0:42:44 | 0:42:47 | |
without any idea how thick it was. | 0:42:47 | 0:42:50 | |
But as it took a day to make one single measurement, | 0:42:52 | 0:42:55 | |
mapping the whole continent was going to take decades. | 0:42:55 | 0:42:59 | |
Until another ice secret was unlocked by American army engineer, Amory Waite. | 0:43:02 | 0:43:08 | |
In the 1950s, experienced pilots were crashing into the Antarctic ice sheet and no-one knew why. | 0:43:11 | 0:43:17 | |
Waite knew the planes' altimeters used radar to measure how high they were above the ground. | 0:43:20 | 0:43:25 | |
He started hitting ice with different frequencies of radio waves | 0:43:26 | 0:43:31 | |
and realised some of them were going straight through the ice. | 0:43:31 | 0:43:35 | |
This could have given the pilots a false reading of their height. | 0:43:35 | 0:43:39 | |
Waite realised that despite being a solid, | 0:43:41 | 0:43:44 | |
ice was transparent to radar. | 0:43:44 | 0:43:47 | |
Once this was known, planes stopped crashing, | 0:43:49 | 0:43:52 | |
saving countless lives. | 0:43:52 | 0:43:54 | |
But it also revolutionised Charles Swithinbank's job | 0:43:55 | 0:43:59 | |
of surveying the Antarctic ice sheet and the land beneath. | 0:43:59 | 0:44:03 | |
His team could now criss-cross the continent in a plane, | 0:44:05 | 0:44:09 | |
using radar to see through the ice | 0:44:09 | 0:44:12 | |
by bouncing radio waves off the bedrock below. | 0:44:12 | 0:44:15 | |
And he could now take hundreds of readings every second. | 0:44:15 | 0:44:20 | |
It was staggeringly exciting | 0:44:25 | 0:44:26 | |
because we were getting a cross-section of the ice sheet as we flew over it. | 0:44:26 | 0:44:30 | |
We went to a number of places where I'd worked on the ground | 0:44:30 | 0:44:36 | |
and dreamed and wondered how thick the ice was. | 0:44:36 | 0:44:38 | |
And in the matter of a minute - | 0:44:38 | 0:44:41 | |
pow! - we'd measured how thick it was. | 0:44:41 | 0:44:44 | |
It was very, very exciting. | 0:44:44 | 0:44:46 | |
Beneath the white and pristine Antarctic surface, | 0:44:48 | 0:44:51 | |
an entire new world was uncovered. | 0:44:51 | 0:44:53 | |
A world made of valleys, mountains and plateaus | 0:44:54 | 0:44:58 | |
hidden in parts by ice more than four kilometres thick. | 0:44:58 | 0:45:02 | |
And all laid bare thanks to discovering another secret of the ice crystal. | 0:45:05 | 0:45:09 | |
While the Antarctic lies on mountainous bedrock, | 0:45:19 | 0:45:22 | |
on the other side of the world, the Arctic is a treacherous ocean | 0:45:22 | 0:45:26 | |
of floating sea ice, | 0:45:26 | 0:45:28 | |
where exploration has often been driven by commerce. | 0:45:28 | 0:45:32 | |
For hundreds of years, sailors searched for a short and lucrative trade route through these waters | 0:45:42 | 0:45:47 | |
between Europe and the Pacific. | 0:45:47 | 0:45:50 | |
One that would be cheaper than the long route via India and China. | 0:45:50 | 0:45:54 | |
The elusive North-West Passage. | 0:45:54 | 0:45:58 | |
For the expedition that found it, there was a prize of thousands of pounds. | 0:46:03 | 0:46:08 | |
I'm interested in the story of one particular expedition. | 0:46:09 | 0:46:13 | |
It was led by a celebrated naval officer, Sir John Franklin. | 0:46:13 | 0:46:16 | |
But it turned out to be the worst disaster in the history of British polar exploration. | 0:46:16 | 0:46:22 | |
What draws me to this story | 0:46:25 | 0:46:26 | |
is that it plays out like a detective mystery | 0:46:26 | 0:46:29 | |
with ice as the key witness. | 0:46:29 | 0:46:32 | |
And some of the clues are here, at the Scott Polar Research Institute. | 0:46:33 | 0:46:39 | |
This is the leader of the expedition, Sir John Franklin. | 0:46:40 | 0:46:43 | |
In 1845, he was already 59 years old. | 0:46:43 | 0:46:47 | |
He'd fought with Nelson at the Battle of Trafalgar. | 0:46:47 | 0:46:50 | |
He'd been to the Arctic three times and mapped thousands of miles of coastline. | 0:46:50 | 0:46:53 | |
The British public had been captivated by stories of how he and his men | 0:46:53 | 0:46:57 | |
staved off hunger by eating their own leather boots. | 0:46:57 | 0:47:00 | |
Franklin was clearly the man for the job. | 0:47:04 | 0:47:06 | |
Before he set off, he arranged to have portraits taken of himself and his senior officers | 0:47:07 | 0:47:13 | |
with the very latest technology. | 0:47:13 | 0:47:15 | |
Curator Heather Lane has these precious early daguerreotypes | 0:47:17 | 0:47:22 | |
for me to see. | 0:47:22 | 0:47:23 | |
-If you'd like to pick it up and open it. -I'd love to. | 0:47:23 | 0:47:26 | |
Very happy. | 0:47:26 | 0:47:28 | |
And there he is. | 0:47:28 | 0:47:31 | |
Quite extraordinary to think you're seeing him on the day they set off. | 0:47:31 | 0:47:38 | |
'Franklin had assembled a team of experienced officers to sail with him to the Arctic, | 0:47:39 | 0:47:44 | |
'many of whom had been there before.' | 0:47:44 | 0:47:47 | |
-They all look quite sure of themselves. -Franklin had been sensible. | 0:47:47 | 0:47:52 | |
He's pulled together a team he knows will actually obey orders | 0:47:52 | 0:47:55 | |
in what are likely to be quite difficult circumstances. | 0:47:55 | 0:47:59 | |
In total, 133 men set sail with Franklin from Kent | 0:48:03 | 0:48:07 | |
in two sturdy ships, the Erebus and the Terror, | 0:48:07 | 0:48:11 | |
both of which had seen service in the Polar regions before. | 0:48:11 | 0:48:15 | |
They were expecting to sail from the Atlantic Ocean | 0:48:17 | 0:48:20 | |
through the ice-bound islands of Northern Canada | 0:48:20 | 0:48:23 | |
to the Pacific Ocean, and return within three years. | 0:48:23 | 0:48:28 | |
They'd refitted these ships with state-of-the-art equipment. They were steam-powered, | 0:48:31 | 0:48:36 | |
they had water purification, they had central heating on board. | 0:48:36 | 0:48:40 | |
They really put a huge amount of effort into ensuring | 0:48:40 | 0:48:44 | |
that this was the expedition that was going to make it all the way through the North-West Passage. | 0:48:44 | 0:48:50 | |
Then suddenly, they disappear. | 0:48:50 | 0:48:53 | |
The ice has swallowed this expedition whole. | 0:48:53 | 0:48:56 | |
And it's the beginning of a great Victorian mystery - what has happened to Franklin and his men? | 0:48:56 | 0:49:02 | |
Over the next few years, | 0:49:03 | 0:49:05 | |
more than 30 rescue missions searched the icy Arctic for survivors | 0:49:05 | 0:49:10 | |
but failed to find any. | 0:49:10 | 0:49:11 | |
It wasn't until 1858 that the likely fate of Franklin's men was confirmed | 0:49:14 | 0:49:19 | |
by a message discovered in a can on a small uninhabited island. | 0:49:19 | 0:49:25 | |
Written by two senior officers, | 0:49:28 | 0:49:30 | |
it announced that Sir John Franklin had died in 1847, | 0:49:30 | 0:49:35 | |
two years after he'd set sail. | 0:49:35 | 0:49:37 | |
Both ships had been abandoned in the ice | 0:49:39 | 0:49:42 | |
and second-in-command Captain Crozier was attempting to lead 105 survivors to safety. | 0:49:42 | 0:49:48 | |
But why had an expedition with experienced Polar navigators | 0:49:50 | 0:49:55 | |
in state-of-the-art ships, | 0:49:55 | 0:49:57 | |
ended up like this? | 0:49:57 | 0:49:59 | |
Well, although the records end here, | 0:50:00 | 0:50:02 | |
the detective story doesn't. | 0:50:02 | 0:50:05 | |
What I find fascinating about the Franklin story | 0:50:05 | 0:50:09 | |
is it doesn't seem to die. Clues keep on showing up in the ice. | 0:50:09 | 0:50:13 | |
And eventually, it would be the ice that would provide the answer. | 0:50:15 | 0:50:20 | |
In 1986, a team of forensic archaeologists | 0:50:27 | 0:50:31 | |
travelled to Beachy Island in northern Canada. | 0:50:31 | 0:50:35 | |
This was where, in 1850, | 0:50:35 | 0:50:37 | |
a search party had found empty food cans, | 0:50:37 | 0:50:41 | |
evidence that the expedition had wintered here. | 0:50:41 | 0:50:43 | |
And not far from them, three graves. | 0:50:46 | 0:50:50 | |
Over two intense weeks, Dr Owen Beatty and his team | 0:50:55 | 0:50:58 | |
exhumed the bodies of able seaman John Hartnell | 0:50:58 | 0:51:01 | |
and Private William Brain | 0:51:01 | 0:51:03 | |
to try to find out how they'd died. | 0:51:03 | 0:51:05 | |
The forensic team had no idea what to expect. What condition the bodies would be in. | 0:51:08 | 0:51:12 | |
They had to pick-axe their way through the frozen ground | 0:51:12 | 0:51:15 | |
which is what the grave-diggers must have had to do when they buried the bodies in the Arctic winter. | 0:51:15 | 0:51:21 | |
They found that the ice had preserved the bodies almost perfectly. | 0:51:25 | 0:51:29 | |
When they released them, using warm water, | 0:51:29 | 0:51:33 | |
there was so little decay, it was relatively easy to investigate how they'd died. | 0:51:33 | 0:51:38 | |
John Hartnell had had tuberculosis, but he was also incredibly thin. | 0:51:40 | 0:51:46 | |
He had no food in his stomach or intestines. | 0:51:46 | 0:51:50 | |
Scattered around the camp, Beatty had found empty cans that had been soldered with lead. | 0:51:53 | 0:51:58 | |
He put two and two together. | 0:51:58 | 0:52:01 | |
He tested the men's bodies | 0:52:01 | 0:52:03 | |
and found dangerously high levels of lead | 0:52:03 | 0:52:06 | |
in their hair, bones and soft tissue. | 0:52:06 | 0:52:09 | |
To date, about 17 more of Franklin's men | 0:52:12 | 0:52:15 | |
have been found to have had toxic levels of lead in their bones. | 0:52:15 | 0:52:19 | |
New research suggest the lead might not have come from the cans at all | 0:52:22 | 0:52:26 | |
but is more likely to have leeched out of the new lead piping in the ship's water system | 0:52:26 | 0:52:32 | |
and contaminated their water. | 0:52:32 | 0:52:34 | |
Lead poisoning is a horrible way to die. | 0:52:40 | 0:52:43 | |
It paralyses your muscles and eats away at your brain and central nervous system. | 0:52:43 | 0:52:47 | |
So then what you get is disorientation and anorexia. | 0:52:47 | 0:52:51 | |
The worst things that can happen if you're trying to survive an Arctic winter. | 0:52:51 | 0:52:55 | |
We know so much about the tragic fate of Franklin and his men | 0:53:09 | 0:53:12 | |
because of the miraculous ability of ice to preserve. | 0:53:12 | 0:53:15 | |
But it doesn't just preserve history by slowing down decomposition. | 0:53:15 | 0:53:19 | |
It also has the ability to preserve something much more delicate than bodies. | 0:53:19 | 0:53:24 | |
And one that might prove even more valuable. | 0:53:24 | 0:53:28 | |
In the Antarctic, teams of scientists have been reaching back into history. | 0:53:35 | 0:53:40 | |
They've been drilling thousands of metres into the ice sheet | 0:53:42 | 0:53:46 | |
to remove columns of ice that can bear witness to our past. | 0:53:46 | 0:53:50 | |
These ice cores preserve air from hundreds of thousands of years ago. | 0:53:53 | 0:53:59 | |
They're helping us understand one of the most complex aspects of nature, | 0:54:01 | 0:54:06 | |
our climate. | 0:54:06 | 0:54:07 | |
I'm with Dr Robert Mulvaney | 0:54:12 | 0:54:15 | |
at the British Antarctic Survey's ice core freezer in Cambridge | 0:54:15 | 0:54:19 | |
where he studies this ancient ice. | 0:54:19 | 0:54:21 | |
So if I take a piece of this out. | 0:54:27 | 0:54:28 | |
Let's put that down on here. | 0:54:28 | 0:54:31 | |
You can probably make out the tiny air balls in there. | 0:54:35 | 0:54:38 | |
It's the magic of the ice that it's able to take these air molecules | 0:54:38 | 0:54:42 | |
-into its matrix without altering them, and release them back to us later. -A storage box. -Yes. | 0:54:42 | 0:54:47 | |
What we'll do is cut a piece off and see if we can see the air bubbles. | 0:54:47 | 0:54:51 | |
The deeper you go, the older the ice gets. | 0:54:52 | 0:54:55 | |
Scientists are able to date each layer of ice | 0:54:55 | 0:54:58 | |
from chemical markers within the ice crystal itself. | 0:54:58 | 0:55:01 | |
It's starting to clear. I think you can see the air bubbles in that. | 0:55:03 | 0:55:07 | |
Fantastic, isn't it? | 0:55:07 | 0:55:10 | |
This air is about 1,000 years old! | 0:55:10 | 0:55:12 | |
So when they were invading Britain in 1066, | 0:55:12 | 0:55:15 | |
this is the air they would have been breathing! | 0:55:15 | 0:55:18 | |
-The Saxons and Normans. -Saxons and Normans. | 0:55:18 | 0:55:20 | |
-That is wild! -It is, isn't it? | 0:55:20 | 0:55:22 | |
This is quite a long way down in the ice sheet. | 0:55:24 | 0:55:26 | |
This is about 80,000 years old. You can probably see the air in that. | 0:55:26 | 0:55:31 | |
So this is before... This fell as snow and trapped air | 0:55:31 | 0:55:35 | |
before human civilisation? | 0:55:35 | 0:55:37 | |
That's right. Fascinating, isn't it? | 0:55:37 | 0:55:40 | |
As well as preserving past atmospheres, | 0:55:42 | 0:55:44 | |
the ice crystals preserve another important secret. | 0:55:44 | 0:55:48 | |
Tiny variations in their chemistry | 0:55:48 | 0:55:51 | |
reveal the temperature of the climate when they originally formed. | 0:55:51 | 0:55:55 | |
This has allowed us to see in more detail than ever before | 0:55:55 | 0:55:59 | |
how our climate has changed throughout history. | 0:55:59 | 0:56:02 | |
It's also enabled us to explore a link | 0:56:04 | 0:56:07 | |
between temperature and levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide. | 0:56:07 | 0:56:10 | |
Our oldest ice core goes back 800,000 years. | 0:56:13 | 0:56:17 | |
In that period, we've been in and out of an ice age eight times. | 0:56:17 | 0:56:20 | |
And all through that period, the atmosphere and the temperature have been very closely linked. | 0:56:20 | 0:56:26 | |
So as we go into an ice age, the levels of carbon dioxide, greenhouse gases, decrease, | 0:56:26 | 0:56:31 | |
and as come out of an ice age they start to increase. | 0:56:31 | 0:56:34 | |
The ice core record shows that there was a strong relationship between temperature and carbon dioxide. | 0:56:34 | 0:56:41 | |
They've moved in tandem throughout history for 800,000 years. | 0:56:41 | 0:56:46 | |
To many scientists, this historical record supports current theories of global warming, | 0:56:49 | 0:56:54 | |
suggesting that if carbon dioxide levels rise, as they're doing today, | 0:56:54 | 0:56:58 | |
temperatures will also rise. | 0:56:58 | 0:57:01 | |
It's a warning from the past that many find hard to ignore. | 0:57:01 | 0:57:05 | |
And all because of the unique ability of ice | 0:57:05 | 0:57:09 | |
to capture air and preserve it. | 0:57:09 | 0:57:11 | |
Ice is one of the most enigmatic substances in nature. | 0:57:20 | 0:57:24 | |
A solid can pass through it, without leaving a trace. | 0:57:24 | 0:57:29 | |
It can shatter rock and sculpt our planet. | 0:57:31 | 0:57:34 | |
In space, its protective shell may conceal life forms | 0:57:37 | 0:57:41 | |
just waiting to be discovered. | 0:57:41 | 0:57:43 | |
It can last for millions of years | 0:57:45 | 0:57:48 | |
or just melt in an instant. | 0:57:48 | 0:57:50 | |
I'm drawn to ice because of its contradictions. | 0:57:54 | 0:57:56 | |
Although is seems so fragile, it's capable of carving out landscapes and preserving histories, | 0:57:56 | 0:58:02 | |
even giving us warnings about the future of our world. | 0:58:02 | 0:58:05 | |
But what's really struck me about making this programme | 0:58:05 | 0:58:08 | |
is discovering where all that power comes from. | 0:58:08 | 0:58:11 | |
Because actually, the very thing that makes ice seem fragile and vulnerable, | 0:58:11 | 0:58:15 | |
the fact that it's always on the point of disappearing | 0:58:15 | 0:58:18 | |
turns out to be the source of all its strength. | 0:58:18 | 0:58:21 | |
Subtitles by Red Bee Media Ltd | 0:58:49 | 0:58:52 |