Who Are We? The Story of Science: Power, Proof and Passion


Who Are We?

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There are some great questions

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that have intrigued and haunted us since the dawn of humanity.

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What is out there?

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How did we get here?

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What is the world made of?

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The story of our search to answer those questions

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is the story of science.

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Of all human endeavours,

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science has had the greatest impact on our lives,

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on how we see the world, on how we see ourselves.

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Its ideas, its achievements, its results are all around us.

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So how did we arrive at the modern world?

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The answer is more surprising and more human than you might think.

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It is a tale of power,

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proof,

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and passion.

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This time, one of the more intimate questions we've ever asked.

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What makes us human?

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The question, what is human nature,

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what is it that shapes our thoughts, feelings and desires,

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is one that philosophers, writers and religious leaders have all struggled with.

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I am particularly interested in how science has wrestled with this particular question,

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and that's not just because it gets to the heart of who we are,

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but also because it gets to the heart of what science itself is.

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I want to begin with one of the great civilisations of the ancient world -

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Egypt.

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The ancient Egyptians were amongst the first people we know about

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to really wrestle with the question, what makes us human?

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We humans are acutely aware of ourselves,

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of the sense of being alive, of living within our own skin.

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But where does this "me" reside?

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Where is the control centre?

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Where is the essence of what I truly am?

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Egyptian beliefs about what made us human

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are revealed in their attitudes to the afterlife.

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Certain organs, like the stomach, lungs or liver,

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were seen as so critical they were frequently removed, embalmed,

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and put back inside the body for burial.

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The Egyptians believed that the heart was the key to the afterlife,

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that when you died it would testify for your good or your bad deeds.

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On this papyrus you can see a heart being weighed up against a feather.

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If it was heavier than the feather then this demon over here

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would come and eat it, and that was all over for you.

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In fact, the idea of being light-hearted or heavy-hearted comes from the Egyptians.

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And in a way you can understand why they thought that the emotions resided in the heart.

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Certainly when I have been broken-hearted I've felt it in my gut, and in my chest.

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So the Egyptians treated the heart with great reverence.

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But what about that other organ we now regard as more central to our humanity?

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Here at Manchester University,

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a team of Egyptologists are studying a 2,500-year-old mummy.

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An endoscope is going to be pushed up its nose

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to show me how the Egyptians treated the brain.

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Carefully.

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As we enter the nose

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through the nasal septum...

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How extraordinary.

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-It's like going into some sort of hidden cave.

-It is, isn't it?

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It's a secret world, really.

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We would normally be stopped from going through there because of the bone

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that would separate the brain from the nasal cavity.

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-Which should be there.

-Yes, it should be there, of course.

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-Right. And so now you're actually entering the skull?

-Yes.

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Ooh!

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That's a sort of, a suture in the top of the head, isn't it?

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There seems to be something missing.

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Yes, there's a brain missing.

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How extraordinary.

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Do they not see the brain as important?

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They recognised that the brain controlled some of the bodily actions,

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but they certainly didn't think that the individual personality

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was located in the brain.

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So they removed it and discarded it.

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-So they just took it and chucked it out.

-Yes.

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-It shows a certain contempt for what we regard as one of our more important organs now.

-Absolutely.

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The Egyptian concept of what makes us who we are was a mystical union

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between the physical body and an everlasting spirit.

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One of the recurring ideas to emerge out of early civilisations like the Egyptians

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was the belief that we are more than simply flesh and blood.

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There is something else, something which is special and makes us human.

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This conviction is one of the most powerful and enduring in human history.

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This belief shapes thinking for millennia.

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But as Europe emerged from the Middle Ages,

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people started to approach the question differently.

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The physical and intellectual frontiers of Europe were changing,

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and that would encourage a very different view of who we are.

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That new view can be glimpsed here, the grandest royal palace in France.

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Amongst this great splendour, there's an intriguing technology...

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..that to me reflects a great change in how we saw ourselves,

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captured in one magnificent room.

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And this is it. It's the great hall of mirrors in Versailles.

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It is absolutely fantastic,

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and the whole room utterly dominated by this wall of mirrors

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which extends down almost 100 metres.

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I've never seen mirrors on this scale.

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This really is cutting-edge technology.

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Now this is not absolutely perfect, the surface not completely smooth,

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you can see little bubbles here in the glass.

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It's not perfect, it's not like a sort of modern mirror.

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But the size and the scale is unlike anything

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which was really done before,

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and compared to the sort of curvy-wurvy things

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that most people would know of from centuries earlier,

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this was something different.

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Because there was nothing, nothing, nothing like this had been developed before.

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It allowed people to just stand there

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and look at themselves and think, you know, "Who am I?" "This is me."

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These mirrors represent the culmination of an idea

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that had been emerging in Europe since the Renaissance.

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The notion that we are all individuals.

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Not members of a class, or a guild,

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but defined by our own desires, ambitions, and destinies.

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Along with this growing awareness of self came different questions.

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What makes ME who I am?

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Why do I have these hopes, these fears, these talents, these expectations?

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And most importantly of all, what is this "I" anyway?

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Throughout history, the technology of the age has stimulated new ways of looking at the world.

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I can see a thing which looks a little bit...

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I don't know what it is, it looks like some sort of sea creature, possibly a prawn.

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New inventions have created metaphors to help us think about what makes us human.

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This makes me smile.

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In 17th-century France, the philosopher Rene Descartes

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was wrestling with the question of human nature.

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For inspiration, he drew on a technological wonder of the age -

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water-powered mechanical statues.

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The story goes that Descartes is wandering through the royal gardens

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and he sees a fountain, and in the middle of the fountain there is an enormous statue of Neptune,

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which is spouting water, a bit like this.

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And this particular Neptune, when you come close, sort of starts to jab at you with the trident.

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And Descartes is rather taken by this, and he starts to think,

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and he thinks perhaps animals are just a form of automata,

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that perhaps a prawn really has some sort of gears in it

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with lots of sort of intersecting bits and pieces.

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And then he starts wondering, perhaps that's what our bodies are,

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they're just sophisticated machines.

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For the time this was a very daring idea,

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to suggest we are like machines,

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but it begged the question, what special quality actually makes us human?

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Descartes was a man desperate for certainty,

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but this was no time to find it.

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17th-century Europe was riven by religious and political conflict.

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Old certainties of Church and State were crumbling.

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What, thought Descartes, could he trust?

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What could he really know?

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Descartes is wracked by doubts,

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and he wants to find out something he can believe in.

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Imagine, says Descartes, a tower,

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and the tower is in fact round, but you perceive it as square.

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Or, for example, this thing here - from a distance it looks square

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but actually when you hold it up it is clearly round.

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Your vision has been deceived.

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And then Descartes wondered if all his senses were deceiving him.

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He could feel the warmth of his fire,

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see its light, hear its sound,

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but he'd experienced the same sensations in a dream.

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So perhaps the whole world he was living in was nothing but an illusion.

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Descartes is now beginning to really question everything -

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the moon, the sky, the stars.

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Perhaps they're all figments of his imagination. But what about maths?

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Two plus three - it always equals five, doesn't it?

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But maybe there's a demon who's taken possession of his brain.

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Descartes is really beginning to doubt everything,

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down to the very question of whether he himself existed at all.

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And then, finally, he got there.

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He realised that the act of doubting implied a doubter.

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There was one thing he could be absolutely certain of -

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the existence of his own thinking, doubting mind.

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He summed it up in a neat philosophical phrase - "I think, therefore I am".

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It may be a familiar phrase, but it contains a profound idea -

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the claim that the essence of our humanity lies in our thoughts,

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our ability to reason.

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And reason was to form the basis of a new, experimental science.

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Across the Channel, a much more bloody approach to the question of "Who are we?"

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was to emerge from a great political clash -

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the English Civil War.

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Oxford was a key Royalist stronghold.

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For some caught up in the action, turmoil spelt opportunity.

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Here in Oxford, a young man called Thomas Willis was part way through

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his medical training, which in those days lasted an incredible 14 years.

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The Civil War interrupted his studies,

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which in many ways was a very good thing.

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Studying medicine didn't necessarily make you a good doctor,

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for one very good reason.

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Medical teaching was still largely based on ideas from antiquity.

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The disruption of his studies gave Willis the opportunity to investigate the body for himself.

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By now, people were exploring the anatomy of the brain.

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But still, no-one really knew what it did.

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In the mid-1600s, Willis began a ground-breaking series of dissections,

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and I'm about to get a privileged glimpse of what he would have seen.

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-Ah!

-There we are.

-Human brain. Isn't it wonderful?

-It is.

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It is utterly unbelievable when you think that this brain once thought, it reasoned.

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It's a unique feature of the universe, really.

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When a brain is sort of fresh it's a very different consistency.

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Yes, it is, it's... I tell students it's a bit like a badly set jelly.

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But presumably if you were to cut that you really would have great difficulties.

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Yes, it would just fall to pieces, really.

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Willis was one of the first o use a new technique -

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preserving brains in alcohol.

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This made them firm enough to dissect with great precision.

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-You ready to cut this?

-Yes, ready to cut.

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Isn't it strange?

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Ah!

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What's really curious is that there's almost no structure or definition to it, is there?

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The thing that really catches your eye is the ventricles in the centre,

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which were what everybody was preoccupied with before Willis.

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And the idea was that this part of the brain may have acted as a sort of pump,

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and important activities may have gone on in the fluid that was moving around in the ventricles.

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So in a sense all this is just muscle, and all the thought

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and the important stuff is taking place in these holes over here?

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Yes, and it was Thomas Willis who realised that

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the actual structure of the brain was what was critically important.

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When Willis looked at animal brains, he concluded our intellect

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and thoughts must lie in the parts of the brain animals don't possess.

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Thomas Willis was very struck by the corrugated surface of the human brain

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as compared to the smooth surface of the sheep, and this enables

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a huge volume of cerebral cortex to be contained

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within the relatively small volume of the skull.

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-And that's where he thought being human resided?

-Yes.

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You can see there's a ribbon of cortex going over the surface

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-of the cerebral hemispheres.

-Oh, just there.

-Yes, that's right.

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And this cortex was where he realised people were likely to have their thoughts.

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Willis had established a link between the state of the brain and the state of the mind.

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He wrote the first book specifically about the brain.

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From now on, anatomical studies would become

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one of the great foundations of a scientific explanation of who we are.

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Reason was now seen as the pinnacle of human nature.

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It had been shaped by philosophical doubt,

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and detailed dissections of the brain.

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Europe entered a new age, a celebration of the rational mind.

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Faith in reason would underpin the growth of trade

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and the building of empires.

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In 1837, something was causing a stir at London Zoo.

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Their first orang-utan, Jenny,

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was introduced to an astonished audience.

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Exotic animals were being brought to Britain from across the Empire.

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Even Queen Victoria herself came calling.

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Jenny's arrival would challenge assumptions about what makes us human.

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Right, come this way, Michael, I'll introduce you to Batu,

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who should be waiting. There he is.

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-There he is. Hello.

-This is Batu.

-Wow, he's big.

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-Hello.

-Batu's very big.

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-What a beautiful face.

-Very big and very strong.

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-Right. Can I do this?

-Yeah, just be careful with the orange.

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Yeah.

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Oop, very delicately done!

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He doesn't want to drop it.

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He's even ruder than my kids!

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That's rude, stop it.

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You could actually see a wonderfully sort of sullen look on his face.

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-Yeah.

-That look of "Mm, don't like that."

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It's a very human expression.

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Odd behaviour. Oh, no, that's terrible!

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Ah! Ugh!

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It's wonderful, this is a, a great sense of independence.

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Stop it now.

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You've spat at me.

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You've played your game.

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What are you going to do next?

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Oh, that's smelly!

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One of the visitors to the zoo was young Charles Darwin.

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But this isn't the familiar story about evolution.

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His visit to the zoo was part of his lesser-known research -

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fascination with animal emotion.

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One day, Darwin saw something that really astonished him.

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Jenny was playing with the keeper, and the keeper had an apple,

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and the keeper was taunting Jenny by waving the apple in front of her but not letting her get hold of it.

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And in Darwin's words, "The ape threw herself on her back and cried precisely like a little child."

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Darwin became convinced that the expressions of emotion

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he saw in Jenny and in humans were the same.

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His research developed over 30 years.

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Tenderness, shame, joy -

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he saw them all in animals.

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Darwin's painstaking work led to one of his most important books,

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The Expression Of The Emotions In Man And Animals.

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It was greeted with alarm and fascination.

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Now this is a really incredible book,

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partly because of the illustrations, because this is one of the first books ever to include photographs.

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And they feature people, people in various states of distress, if you like.

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Disconsolate, sad, very sad-looking.

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He examines it in almost microscopic detail.

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There's a very interesting picture here of a woman's forehead,

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and he notices these two lines coming up here,

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which were later called in fact the Darwin grief muscle.

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What Darwin was undermining in his work was a fundamental belief -

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a belief in human uniqueness.

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By suggesting a close kinship with animals,

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he'd also opened the lid on the rational mind,

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hinting at a dark subterranean world of instincts, desires, emotions -

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the animal within.

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Here was an irony for Victorian science.

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The power of reason, which made us unique,

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had been turned on ourselves,

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and revealed us to be less exalted, less rational,

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than had been suspected.

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A new side of ourselves was being unearthed,

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darker and more dangerous.

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In Paris, doctors began to explore this untamed side,

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at La Salpetriere.

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This imposing-looking building was originally used to store gunpowder,

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but then they decided they could put it to better use,

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to lock away thousands of people who were regarded as just as

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unstable and dangerous - the destitute and the insane.

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It had been Europe's most notorious women's asylum,

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with nothing to offer but cruel imprisonment.

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These are some of the cells where they kept the women,

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and these are the original bars behind which they were imprisoned.

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And there is something terribly poignant about the idea of thousands of women chained up,

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in filthy living conditions,

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utterly without any prospect of release, no hope, no hope at all.

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But attitudes were changing.

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After years of revolution, the asylum had become a place of care

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rather than simply imprisonment.

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One of its most famous physicians was Jean-Martin Charcot.

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Often the best way to understand the normal is to study the abnormal,

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and here there were 5,000 troubled minds to study.

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Charcot was one of the first people to try and separate out

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and categorise different forms of mental and neurological illness.

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He took incredibly detailed notes, and he also took lots of photographs.

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One condition in particular had been puzzling doctors.

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They called it hysteria.

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Patients suffered paralysis, seizures, blindness, and violent fits.

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Charcot presumed these symptoms were caused by a physical disease,

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but then he began to use a remarkable new approach.

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Five, six...

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Hypnosis.

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..Seven...

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Charcot found he could induce and relieve

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symptoms of hysteria using hypnosis.

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And become aware of any feelings of lightness, going up.

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It could produce extraordinary effects in the body.

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Drifting up and up now, and the balloon really sort of taking off now and bobbing from side to side.

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OK, can you see the balloon?

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I can, it's a big blue balloon.

0:28:270:28:29

-OK, and it's...

-A sort of Winnie the Pooh blue balloon.

0:28:290:28:32

OK. Well, you get that feeling of the...

0:28:320:28:34

'I've tried hypnosis before, but this is the first time it's really worked.'

0:28:340:28:41

OK and just notice what's happening there.

0:28:410:28:44

'Over the course of an hour, I mysteriously lost co-ordination of my hand.'

0:28:440:28:48

And that's even more noticeable in fact, it's becoming really shaky now.

0:28:480:28:53

'I had my hands stuck together.'

0:28:530:28:57

Knuckles are quite locked.

0:28:570:28:58

-Oh!

-They are quite locked.

0:28:580:29:00

'And most bizarre at all, one side of my visual field was rendered almost useless.'

0:29:000:29:06

-Seems a bit fainter.

-OK.

0:29:060:29:09

And, um, I have a sense of something in there but not really.

0:29:090:29:12

-OK.

-Not really objects.

-OK.

0:29:120:29:15

One, two...

0:29:150:29:18

'That was extremely odd.'

0:29:180:29:20

It was a bit like I was there but I wasn't there,

0:29:200:29:24

that he was talking to some other part of me,

0:29:240:29:27

and the other part of me was responding.

0:29:270:29:30

-Higher, and higher.

-And the idea you can just do it with the power of words...

0:29:300:29:35

quite strange.

0:29:350:29:38

Charcot's observations of hysteria led him towards

0:29:400:29:43

a radical conclusion.

0:29:430:29:45

If symptoms could be induced or relieved by hypnosis,

0:29:490:29:53

then perhaps they were not signs of some pathological disease.

0:29:530:29:57

Perhaps they were caused by emotions,

0:29:570:30:00

that the patients themselves were not even aware they were feeling.

0:30:000:30:04

Charcot never fully grasped what he was dealing with,

0:30:040:30:07

what we would now call the unconscious mind.

0:30:070:30:11

In amongst the crowds at one of Charcot's famous demonstrations

0:30:140:30:18

was a young Austrian doctor, Sigmund Freud,

0:30:180:30:22

a man who would famously use the study of hidden emotions

0:30:240:30:29

and repressed urges to develop this extraordinary concept

0:30:290:30:33

of the unconscious mind.

0:30:330:30:35

Freud's ideas would become a significant cultural influence

0:30:370:30:42

on the 20th century.

0:30:420:30:43

They would join a rising tide of other ideas

0:30:470:30:51

that would form a wholly new approach to who we are - psychology.

0:30:510:30:57

A less than rational self had been revealed -

0:31:060:31:09

by animals brought back from distant lands,

0:31:120:31:15

by changing attitudes to mental illness,

0:31:180:31:21

and a new door into the unconscious mind.

0:31:210:31:25

We could no longer see ourselves simply as creatures of reason.

0:31:260:31:31

By the end of the 19th century,

0:31:420:31:44

Europe was in the throes of a bold new age of communication.

0:31:440:31:48

Thousands of miles of new railway linked the continent's great cities.

0:31:570:32:04

Telegraph cables joined people across the globe.

0:32:040:32:07

This interconnected world

0:32:130:32:16

led to a different way of looking at how the brain works.

0:32:160:32:23

This new technology, naturally enough,

0:32:230:32:26

inspired new metaphors to describe the nervous system.

0:32:260:32:30

For example, if I pinch my finger, then the pain fibres go

0:32:300:32:34

down the line, up into my spinal cord and from there to the brain.

0:32:340:32:38

The thing is, what happens next?

0:32:380:32:41

Well, everyone knew there were complicated signal boxes and junctions up there,

0:32:410:32:45

but nobody knew just how they worked.

0:32:450:32:48

The Spanish countryside.

0:32:560:32:58

Home to a scientist I deeply admire.

0:33:030:33:06

He had a passion for art that would shape his future career as a neuroscientist.

0:33:070:33:13

His name was Santiago Ramon y Cajal.

0:33:180:33:23

When he was a young man, Cajal was obsessed by art.

0:33:270:33:31

As he later wrote, "I was gripped by an irresistible mania.

0:33:310:33:36

"I painted everything that captivated my sight - earth, foliage, plants, the human form".

0:33:360:33:43

He was actually extremely good at putting down on paper what he saw.

0:33:430:33:47

Cajal's passion for art

0:33:490:33:51

was coupled with a fascination for a new technology - photography.

0:33:510:33:57

This is the sort of camera that Cajal would have used.

0:33:570:34:01

I've got it lined up on the mountains now.

0:34:010:34:03

I've got a photographic plate in here,

0:34:030:34:07

which is basically a bit of glass with some photosensitive chemicals on.

0:34:070:34:10

And then you lift this.

0:34:100:34:12

And you trigger the shutter.

0:34:120:34:16

It should take about 20 seconds.

0:34:160:34:19

When that's done, this goes down,

0:34:190:34:21

and the glass plate you take away with you

0:34:210:34:24

off to the mysteries of the darkroom.

0:34:240:34:26

It was his twin passions, art and photography, that would shape

0:34:320:34:36

his most important discovery - what it is that makes the brain work.

0:34:360:34:41

To see, observe, and make things visible

0:34:450:34:48

is one of the great challenges of science.

0:34:480:34:52

The challenge for neuroscientists

0:34:520:34:55

was uncovering the fine structure of the brain.

0:34:550:34:58

The task Cajal set himself was to reveal the communication networks

0:35:000:35:06

that exist inside our heads.

0:35:060:35:08

I've come to the Cajal Institute to see how he did it.

0:35:100:35:15

I always feel like I'm getting into surgery again. Great.

0:35:150:35:20

-So...mouse?

-Yeah, take the brain.

0:35:200:35:23

'My first job is to chop up a rather slippery mouse brain.'

0:35:230:35:28

Very small. Hey!

0:35:280:35:31

'It's trickier than it looks'.

0:35:310:35:34

There we go.

0:35:340:35:36

-Feels like cutting onions.

-Yes!

0:35:360:35:38

I'm good at cutting onions.

0:35:380:35:40

'The search was on for a stain that would make the mysterious

0:35:450:35:48

'structure of the brain visible under the microscope.'

0:35:480:35:51

'Cajal was shown a technique using chemicals from the darkroom,

0:35:550:35:59

'chemicals that could make brain tissue turn black'

0:35:590:36:02

You can see it's a really complicated process,

0:36:020:36:07

lots of different stages.

0:36:070:36:09

Cajal spent nearly 20 years fiddling away,

0:36:110:36:15

doing minor adjustments, just seeking perfection.

0:36:150:36:18

The great debate was whether the brain was just a mesh of fibres,

0:36:190:36:25

or made of distinct individual units.

0:36:250:36:28

Placing stained tissue under the microscope, Cajal became convinced

0:36:360:36:42

that there were individual building blocks in the brain - neurons.

0:36:420:36:47

Now, that is absolutely beautiful.

0:36:500:36:54

That is a neuron.

0:36:570:36:58

That is what they were looking for.

0:36:580:37:01

Now, the signal goes up here into the cell body,

0:37:010:37:04

and then somehow gets distributed by thousands of axons and dendrites,

0:37:040:37:10

which link in with all the other neurons in the brain.

0:37:100:37:13

Now, only about 1 in 40 of the neurons actually get stained,

0:37:130:37:18

and that might sound like a bad thing, but it's actually an incredibly good thing

0:37:180:37:22

because if all the neurons here were stained,

0:37:220:37:25

then this would be a confusing mass.

0:37:250:37:27

You wouldn't be able to make any sense at all.

0:37:270:37:29

But because it's just 1 in 40, you can pick them out.

0:37:300:37:33

You can see Cajal's artistic influence here -

0:37:400:37:43

beautiful drawings of neurons.

0:37:430:37:47

He mapped out groups of neurons,

0:37:520:37:55

and theorised how they might work -

0:37:550:37:58

that nerve impulses travel along them in one direction,

0:37:590:38:04

passing from one cell to the next.

0:38:040:38:08

Many years later, his theories would be confirmed.

0:38:110:38:15

Cajal realised that these neurons are the basic units of the human brain.

0:38:170:38:22

We now know there are at least a hundred billion of them,

0:38:220:38:25

and all these connecting branches, well, there are trillions of connections.

0:38:250:38:29

And somewhere in here, emotion and thought are born.

0:38:290:38:35

Somewhere in here is the answer to what makes a human.

0:38:350:38:40

Half a century later, the world descended into chaos.

0:38:540:38:58

Out of the turmoil of World War II came a secret invention,

0:39:020:39:07

built here at Bletchley Park in rural England.

0:39:070:39:10

Colossus - the most complex machine that had yet been built.

0:39:130:39:21

Designed to crack enemy codes,

0:39:210:39:23

it would also shed light on the question of who we are.

0:39:230:39:28

What was truly astonishing about Colossus

0:39:280:39:32

was the speed at which it could work.

0:39:320:39:35

Enemy messages which had previously taken teams of human code-breakers

0:39:350:39:39

six weeks to crack could now be done by the machine in six hours.

0:39:390:39:44

It must have seemed truly superhuman.

0:39:440:39:48

Here was a machine doing something that till now

0:39:500:39:54

only the intelligent human mind could do, but much faster.

0:39:540:39:59

Once again, the technology of the day

0:40:000:40:03

offered a model for how the brain might work.

0:40:030:40:07

When you think about it, it's a bit like a primitive brain,

0:40:100:40:13

with the valves representing the neurons

0:40:130:40:16

and the wiring representing the connecting axons and dendrites.

0:40:160:40:20

People had begun to theorise that Cajal's neurons

0:40:290:40:32

worked a bit like electronic switches.

0:40:320:40:35

If intelligence could be replicated by the on-off switching of a machine,

0:40:360:40:41

perhaps the reasoning mind wasn't as uniquely human as we thought.

0:40:410:40:46

One of the biggest human brains at Bletchley was Alan Turing,

0:40:500:40:54

often called the father of modern computing.

0:40:540:40:57

In 1950, he thought of an ingenious way of judging whether computers

0:40:570:41:03

show some form of intelligence, by devising a test.

0:41:030:41:07

The Turing test is actually more of a Turing question.

0:41:090:41:13

The question he asked himself was,

0:41:130:41:15

would it be possible to build a computer that was so intelligent

0:41:150:41:19

and so good at having chats with humans

0:41:190:41:22

that you could be chatting to the machine

0:41:220:41:24

and not be aware that you're not actually talking to another person?

0:41:240:41:28

Well, he suggested that by the year 2000, we would have cracked the problem.

0:41:280:41:33

We are well beyond that point. Let's see.

0:41:330:41:36

Right, "what is your name?"

0:41:370:41:41

You don't remember? No, I don't remember.

0:41:410:41:45

'I'm plugged into one of the more sophisticated programs,

0:41:450:41:50

'designed to respond to Turing's challenge.'

0:41:500:41:54

OK, let's try some, er, general knowledge.

0:41:540:41:56

I mean, computers should be able to do general knowledge.

0:41:560:41:59

'It doesn't ever seem to really answer the question.'

0:41:590:42:04

Anyway, this is garbage.

0:42:040:42:06

'Let's try a different tack - favourite films.'

0:42:060:42:10

Transformers 2.

0:42:100:42:13

Maybe that is some sort of computer joke.

0:42:130:42:15

I can't believe anybody liked Transformers 2.

0:42:150:42:18

"What films make you cry?"

0:42:180:42:23

"Science fiction and comedy. What do you like?"

0:42:260:42:29

Right. It's not very impressive.

0:42:290:42:31

I'm not enjoying myself. I'm not having a great conversation here.

0:42:310:42:35

I think what you can learn from this is that computers are good at computing,

0:42:370:42:41

basically, crunching numbers and things like that.

0:42:410:42:44

What they clearly lack is the thing that

0:42:440:42:47

really gives any form of human interchange any worth, any value -

0:42:470:42:52

feelings like humour, warmth, love, affection,

0:42:520:42:56

any of the things that we actually value.

0:42:560:43:00

Perhaps too much to expect from a machine.

0:43:000:43:04

-Bye bye.

-ELECTRONIC VOICE: Goodbye. Goodbye.

0:43:040:43:08

For centuries, technology has provided metaphors to explain who we are.

0:43:110:43:16

The computer is simply the latest we have seized on.

0:43:160:43:20

But its failings reveal that what makes us human

0:43:200:43:23

lies in something a machine cannot do.

0:43:230:43:25

We are passionate, irrational creatures,

0:43:280:43:32

often driven by forces we do not understand.

0:43:320:43:35

At the turn of the 20th century, a great nation was coming of age.

0:43:470:43:51

The United States.

0:43:570:44:00

The land of the free, personal rights and liberties.

0:44:120:44:16

This was the perfect home for the thriving discipline

0:44:190:44:22

that focused on ourselves as individuals - psychology.

0:44:220:44:29

Psychology, as the name implies, originally started out as

0:44:340:44:39

the study of the psyche, or mind.

0:44:390:44:42

The idea was, you could look into yourself, introspect,

0:44:420:44:45

and learn about human nature that way.

0:44:450:44:47

However, here in America, a small group of psychologists soon decided

0:44:470:44:51

that was nowhere near rigorous or vigorous enough.

0:44:510:44:54

They wanted to turn psychology into a science, so they decided to

0:44:540:44:59

focus on something they really could measure and manipulate - behaviour.

0:44:590:45:04

This approach, called behaviourism,

0:45:110:45:14

was transformed into a systematic science

0:45:140:45:17

by one of the 20th century's most controversial pioneers.

0:45:170:45:22

His name was BF Skinner.

0:45:230:45:25

Skinner was convinced that our behaviour

0:45:280:45:30

is the product of our environment,

0:45:300:45:33

learnt from our experiences.

0:45:330:45:35

Since Skinner thought that environment was all-important,

0:45:400:45:43

I thought it would be quite interesting to have a look at where he worked.

0:45:430:45:47

This is his study. Isn't it wonderful?

0:45:470:45:50

This is completely unchanged from when he died, over 20 years ago.

0:45:520:45:58

He liked music, so he had this adapted

0:45:580:46:02

so that he could just pull that,

0:46:020:46:05

and play his music.

0:46:050:46:08

This is a man who likes to tinker and adjust things.

0:46:090:46:13

This is the bed in which he used to sleep.

0:46:150:46:18

It is absolutely filled with his paraphernalia.

0:46:180:46:22

It was his passion for gadgets,

0:46:260:46:28

for things that he could adapt and change,

0:46:280:46:31

that led him to his greatest invention,

0:46:310:46:33

a device which is as iconic to behaviourists

0:46:330:46:36

as the telescope is to astronomers -

0:46:360:46:39

the operant conditioning chamber, or Skinner's box.

0:46:390:46:43

Skinner's experiments would reveal something surprising,

0:46:450:46:50

and very disturbing, about the human condition.

0:46:500:46:55

-This is an operant chamber.

-Otherwise known as a Skinner box.

0:46:570:47:01

It's a Skinner box. Many people in my field...

0:47:010:47:03

'Dr Robert Allan uses similar methods to those Skinner used.'

0:47:030:47:07

Here's an area where the pigeon stands.

0:47:070:47:10

Their response keys...

0:47:100:47:11

'The pigeon has to peck on these buttons.

0:47:110:47:14

'If it pecks them in the right order, it gets a reward.'

0:47:140:47:18

So what are you going to do to impress me with the pigeon today?

0:47:180:47:21

I'll show you. Let's go get a pigeon.

0:47:210:47:24

Who's this?

0:47:240:47:26

This is G21.

0:47:260:47:29

G21? I don't think of pigeons as being smart, I must admit.

0:47:290:47:32

-They're very smart.

-Is he going to demonstrate just how smart?

-Indeed.

0:47:320:47:36

-OK. In you go, G21.

-OK.

0:47:360:47:39

-Ooh. Is he hungry?

-It looks like!

0:47:400:47:44

'The pigeon has to work out whether the centre light

0:47:460:47:50

'shines red or green for longest.

0:47:500:47:52

'If it's green, it has to peck the button on the right.'

0:47:520:47:56

Oh, he's smart.

0:47:560:47:57

Long green means go right.

0:47:570:48:00

OK. So will he go right?

0:48:000:48:02

-Yes, he will.

-You're confident in your bird, aren't you?

0:48:020:48:05

-I am very confident.

-Ah! Very good.

-There you go.

0:48:050:48:08

If it was red that was longest, he has to go the other way.

0:48:080:48:12

Now he has to go left.

0:48:120:48:14

-OK.

-Watch.

0:48:140:48:15

Yes, he's done it. He's very good, I have to say.

0:48:150:48:18

I'm good at predicting behaviour.

0:48:180:48:20

Well done, G21. Go, boy, go.

0:48:200:48:24

'What these experiments showed was how easily behaviour could be learned, even manipulated.'

0:48:240:48:30

'I was about to see how quickly this can happen.'

0:48:360:48:40

We are going to shape the turning response

0:48:400:48:44

by delivering reinforcers for his approximate behaviour.

0:48:440:48:49

-You're going to make him sort of turn in a circle, are you?

-That's correct. That's better said!

0:48:490:48:55

'Each time the pigeon turns left,

0:48:560:48:59

'Dr Allan delivers food to reinforce that behaviour,

0:48:590:49:03

'until after just 20 minutes,

0:49:030:49:06

'he has the pigeon dancing round in circles.'

0:49:060:49:09

'Pigeons and birdseed may not look controversial,

0:49:120:49:16

'but what was so shocking at the time

0:49:160:49:18

'was that Skinner applied his ideas to human behaviour.'

0:49:180:49:22

What Skinner was saying is that we are in many ways like pigeons -

0:49:240:49:29

that we are the product of the numerous interactions we have with our environment,

0:49:290:49:33

whether it's falling in love, the job, the friends you make,

0:49:330:49:37

all these things which appear to be decisions are actually

0:49:370:49:40

the product of things that have happened to us in the past.

0:49:400:49:43

We can no more exercise free will than this pigeon

0:49:430:49:47

can decide whether to peck, or indeed, turn in a circle.

0:49:470:49:50

Skinner was convinced his discovery could be used to benefit mankind.

0:49:550:50:01

We could change people's behaviour for the better by changing their environment.

0:50:050:50:11

But in the context of the Cold War, the ability to control behaviour

0:50:130:50:18

left some people fearful it could be misused,

0:50:180:50:22

because in Skinner's view, free will was nothing but an illusion.

0:50:220:50:27

Now, most of us believe that being able to make choices is an important part of being human,

0:50:320:50:37

but here was Skinner saying that that was an illusion,

0:50:370:50:40

that actually it was a piece of pre-scientific nonsense,

0:50:400:50:43

akin to believing in a flat Earth or demonic possession.

0:50:430:50:47

You can imagine how popular that message was in the land of the free and the rugged individual.

0:50:470:50:53

Behaviourism was soon joined by other approaches,

0:50:560:51:00

through the 1960s and beyond.

0:51:000:51:02

There were new drugs, therapies, personality tests,

0:51:040:51:08

new ways to measure our thoughts, memories and emotions.

0:51:080:51:12

Psychology has grown into a vast science,

0:51:140:51:18

as diverse and multi-faceted as we are.

0:51:180:51:22

So, who are we?

0:51:290:51:32

Well, we are the product of our genes and our environment.

0:51:330:51:38

Billions of neurochemical reactions

0:51:450:51:49

firing every single second of our lives.

0:51:490:51:52

In us, reason and emotion are frequently at war.

0:51:550:51:59

Thoughts, passions, memories and behaviour

0:52:030:52:07

emerge unbidden out of the depths.

0:52:070:52:10

Brain scans reveal many parts of the brain

0:52:100:52:13

operating outside our conscious awareness.

0:52:130:52:16

We are the product of numerous daily interactions,

0:52:270:52:31

and the quest to understand the essence of who we are

0:52:330:52:39

has revealed something fascinating going on inside our heads,

0:52:390:52:43

something none of us are ever aware of.

0:52:430:52:46

I can show you what I mean with a famous visual illusion.

0:52:480:52:54

HE LAUGHS

0:52:570:52:59

'It's called the Ames room.'

0:52:590:53:02

That is so bizarre!

0:53:020:53:05

Clearly, what I'm seeing is,

0:53:050:53:07

I'm seeing a very, very tall person over there

0:53:070:53:11

and a short person over there, and when they swap over,

0:53:110:53:14

there's a moment when my brain just goes clunk.

0:53:140:53:18

I absolutely know this is an illusion, but my brain just won't let me see through the illusion.

0:53:190:53:25

So how's it done?

0:53:290:53:30

Well, if you come over this way,

0:53:300:53:33

it's really obvious.

0:53:330:53:35

Hi, there. Thank you.

0:53:350:53:39

OK, so essentially,

0:53:390:53:41

the room really dips downhill. Lots of space above my head.

0:53:410:53:44

There is a sharply sloping floor.

0:53:440:53:47

As I march up, the room begins to narrow until I'm really crunched into the corner.

0:53:470:53:53

There's very little space between the ground and the top here,

0:53:530:53:56

and that's how the illusion is created.

0:53:560:53:59

Essentially, the room is a trapezoid.

0:53:590:54:04

The Ames room shows us something very important

0:54:060:54:09

about how the brain is working.

0:54:090:54:11

There's part of my brain which knows the rules of a room.

0:54:120:54:17

It has assumptions, models built in there,

0:54:170:54:20

and it knows, based on experience,

0:54:200:54:23

that normally in rooms, the ceiling and the floor is parallel,

0:54:230:54:27

and that the walls are at a right angle.

0:54:270:54:30

From one particular viewpoint,

0:54:300:54:33

the room looks like it fits that mental model,

0:54:330:54:36

and the brain has such a powerful belief that this quirky-shaped room

0:54:360:54:41

is normal that people appear to have changed size.

0:54:410:54:45

This illusion reveals something fundamental about how the brain works.

0:54:480:54:53

Our perception of reality is not just based on what is out there,

0:54:540:54:59

but it is also partially constructed.

0:54:590:55:02

We have these models running in our head,

0:55:020:55:05

and they are constantly being tested against the evidence of our senses.

0:55:050:55:09

This process of building models in our heads is happening from the moment we are born.

0:55:170:55:22

This child is using her senses to find out about the world.

0:55:240:55:28

Is that person in the mirror another baby, or is it me?

0:55:310:55:34

Why does that thing make a noise when I shake it?

0:55:360:55:40

What she's doing is constantly learning

0:55:400:55:43

by testing everything around her.

0:55:430:55:46

Thousands of little experiments like these

0:55:480:55:51

will create her unconscious assumptions.

0:55:510:55:53

They'll build the models that shape her view of the world.

0:55:560:56:01

That's how she will be able to make her way through life.

0:56:010:56:04

It is very charming when you think that in a way, what she's doing now

0:56:100:56:14

is acting rather like a mini-scientist.

0:56:140:56:17

She's investigating the world, she's forming her theories,

0:56:170:56:22

her hypotheses, and she's testing them against reality.

0:56:220:56:26

'And that, in a sense, is what science is, and it's going on

0:56:260:56:30

'inside each and every one of us from the moment we're born.'

0:56:300:56:35

Is that right, Chloe? Is that right?

0:56:350:56:37

It is.

0:56:370:56:39

In this programme, we've seen that humans are creatures of both rational thought,

0:56:440:56:51

and emotional turmoil.

0:56:510:56:53

And in this series, I've shown how science too

0:56:550:56:59

has been shaped by reason and emotion,

0:56:590:57:01

as well as by the tumult of the world in which it operates.

0:57:010:57:07

Its intellectual achievements have transformed our lives.

0:57:090:57:13

But it hasn't been straightforward.

0:57:210:57:25

The story of science is a messy one,

0:57:250:57:28

wrapped up in politics, belief, money and rivalry,

0:57:280:57:33

proof forever shaped by power and passion.

0:57:330:57:36

Science is a very human activity,

0:57:400:57:44

something we unconsciously do every day -

0:57:440:57:48

observing the world, building mental models, and testing them.

0:57:480:57:54

But it's when we deliberately started using the scientific method

0:57:550:57:59

that we went way beyond our individual capabilities.

0:57:590:58:03

I think science is the greatest collective endeavour

0:58:050:58:09

that mankind has ever undertaken.

0:58:090:58:12

Over the last few thousand years,

0:58:180:58:21

the human brain has not changed at all.

0:58:210:58:23

Evolution does not go that fast.

0:58:230:58:25

But what has changed is our understanding of the world.

0:58:250:58:29

We don't have to rely simply on the wisdom of our own brains.

0:58:290:58:33

SHE GURGLES

0:58:330:58:34

We have language, we have literature,

0:58:340:58:37

and now we have computers, and that links us all together.

0:58:370:58:41

That gives us, if you like,

0:58:410:58:43

the wisdom of all those who have gone before.

0:58:430:58:46

Subtitles by Red Bee Media Ltd

0:58:560:59:00

E-mail [email protected]

0:59:000:59:03

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