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There are some great questions | 0:00:03 | 0:00:06 | |
that have intrigued and haunted us since the dawn of humanity. | 0:00:06 | 0:00:11 | |
What is out there? | 0:00:12 | 0:00:15 | |
How did we get here? | 0:00:18 | 0:00:21 | |
What is the world made of? | 0:00:24 | 0:00:27 | |
The story of our search to answer those questions | 0:00:30 | 0:00:34 | |
is the story of science. | 0:00:34 | 0:00:36 | |
Of all human endeavours, | 0:00:37 | 0:00:39 | |
science has had the greatest impact on our lives, | 0:00:39 | 0:00:42 | |
on how we see the world, on how we see ourselves. | 0:00:42 | 0:00:46 | |
Its ideas, its achievements, its results are all around us. | 0:00:46 | 0:00:52 | |
So how did we arrive at the modern world? | 0:00:52 | 0:00:58 | |
The answer is more surprising and more human than you might think. | 0:00:59 | 0:01:04 | |
It is a tale of power, | 0:01:07 | 0:01:10 | |
proof, | 0:01:10 | 0:01:13 | |
and passion. | 0:01:13 | 0:01:15 | |
This time, one of the more intimate questions we've ever asked. | 0:01:23 | 0:01:29 | |
What makes us human? | 0:01:29 | 0:01:32 | |
The question, what is human nature, | 0:01:54 | 0:01:56 | |
what is it that shapes our thoughts, feelings and desires, | 0:01:56 | 0:02:00 | |
is one that philosophers, writers and religious leaders have all struggled with. | 0:02:00 | 0:02:06 | |
I am particularly interested in how science has wrestled with this particular question, | 0:02:06 | 0:02:12 | |
and that's not just because it gets to the heart of who we are, | 0:02:12 | 0:02:15 | |
but also because it gets to the heart of what science itself is. | 0:02:15 | 0:02:20 | |
I want to begin with one of the great civilisations of the ancient world - | 0:02:25 | 0:02:31 | |
Egypt. | 0:02:31 | 0:02:33 | |
The ancient Egyptians were amongst the first people we know about | 0:02:36 | 0:02:40 | |
to really wrestle with the question, what makes us human? | 0:02:40 | 0:02:45 | |
We humans are acutely aware of ourselves, | 0:02:49 | 0:02:52 | |
of the sense of being alive, of living within our own skin. | 0:02:52 | 0:02:56 | |
But where does this "me" reside? | 0:02:56 | 0:03:00 | |
Where is the control centre? | 0:03:00 | 0:03:03 | |
Where is the essence of what I truly am? | 0:03:03 | 0:03:07 | |
Egyptian beliefs about what made us human | 0:03:09 | 0:03:12 | |
are revealed in their attitudes to the afterlife. | 0:03:12 | 0:03:16 | |
Certain organs, like the stomach, lungs or liver, | 0:03:18 | 0:03:21 | |
were seen as so critical they were frequently removed, embalmed, | 0:03:21 | 0:03:26 | |
and put back inside the body for burial. | 0:03:26 | 0:03:31 | |
The Egyptians believed that the heart was the key to the afterlife, | 0:03:33 | 0:03:37 | |
that when you died it would testify for your good or your bad deeds. | 0:03:37 | 0:03:42 | |
On this papyrus you can see a heart being weighed up against a feather. | 0:03:42 | 0:03:46 | |
If it was heavier than the feather then this demon over here | 0:03:46 | 0:03:50 | |
would come and eat it, and that was all over for you. | 0:03:50 | 0:03:52 | |
In fact, the idea of being light-hearted or heavy-hearted comes from the Egyptians. | 0:03:52 | 0:03:59 | |
And in a way you can understand why they thought that the emotions resided in the heart. | 0:03:59 | 0:04:04 | |
Certainly when I have been broken-hearted I've felt it in my gut, and in my chest. | 0:04:04 | 0:04:09 | |
So the Egyptians treated the heart with great reverence. | 0:04:11 | 0:04:16 | |
But what about that other organ we now regard as more central to our humanity? | 0:04:16 | 0:04:21 | |
Here at Manchester University, | 0:04:26 | 0:04:29 | |
a team of Egyptologists are studying a 2,500-year-old mummy. | 0:04:29 | 0:04:35 | |
An endoscope is going to be pushed up its nose | 0:04:35 | 0:04:39 | |
to show me how the Egyptians treated the brain. | 0:04:39 | 0:04:43 | |
Carefully. | 0:04:45 | 0:04:48 | |
As we enter the nose | 0:04:49 | 0:04:52 | |
through the nasal septum... | 0:04:52 | 0:04:54 | |
How extraordinary. | 0:04:54 | 0:04:57 | |
-It's like going into some sort of hidden cave. -It is, isn't it? | 0:04:59 | 0:05:02 | |
It's a secret world, really. | 0:05:02 | 0:05:04 | |
We would normally be stopped from going through there because of the bone | 0:05:05 | 0:05:09 | |
that would separate the brain from the nasal cavity. | 0:05:09 | 0:05:12 | |
-Which should be there. -Yes, it should be there, of course. | 0:05:12 | 0:05:16 | |
-Right. And so now you're actually entering the skull? -Yes. | 0:05:16 | 0:05:19 | |
Ooh! | 0:05:23 | 0:05:25 | |
That's a sort of, a suture in the top of the head, isn't it? | 0:05:25 | 0:05:28 | |
There seems to be something missing. | 0:05:28 | 0:05:32 | |
Yes, there's a brain missing. | 0:05:32 | 0:05:35 | |
How extraordinary. | 0:05:35 | 0:05:37 | |
Do they not see the brain as important? | 0:05:37 | 0:05:40 | |
They recognised that the brain controlled some of the bodily actions, | 0:05:40 | 0:05:44 | |
but they certainly didn't think that the individual personality | 0:05:44 | 0:05:49 | |
was located in the brain. | 0:05:49 | 0:05:51 | |
So they removed it and discarded it. | 0:05:51 | 0:05:53 | |
-So they just took it and chucked it out. -Yes. | 0:05:53 | 0:05:56 | |
-It shows a certain contempt for what we regard as one of our more important organs now. -Absolutely. | 0:05:56 | 0:06:02 | |
The Egyptian concept of what makes us who we are was a mystical union | 0:06:04 | 0:06:10 | |
between the physical body and an everlasting spirit. | 0:06:10 | 0:06:15 | |
One of the recurring ideas to emerge out of early civilisations like the Egyptians | 0:06:19 | 0:06:25 | |
was the belief that we are more than simply flesh and blood. | 0:06:25 | 0:06:29 | |
There is something else, something which is special and makes us human. | 0:06:29 | 0:06:34 | |
This conviction is one of the most powerful and enduring in human history. | 0:06:34 | 0:06:40 | |
This belief shapes thinking for millennia. | 0:06:44 | 0:06:48 | |
But as Europe emerged from the Middle Ages, | 0:06:50 | 0:06:53 | |
people started to approach the question differently. | 0:06:53 | 0:06:56 | |
The physical and intellectual frontiers of Europe were changing, | 0:06:59 | 0:07:03 | |
and that would encourage a very different view of who we are. | 0:07:03 | 0:07:08 | |
That new view can be glimpsed here, the grandest royal palace in France. | 0:07:16 | 0:07:22 | |
Amongst this great splendour, there's an intriguing technology... | 0:07:29 | 0:07:34 | |
..that to me reflects a great change in how we saw ourselves, | 0:07:35 | 0:07:41 | |
captured in one magnificent room. | 0:07:41 | 0:07:44 | |
And this is it. It's the great hall of mirrors in Versailles. | 0:07:53 | 0:07:57 | |
It is absolutely fantastic, | 0:08:02 | 0:08:06 | |
and the whole room utterly dominated by this wall of mirrors | 0:08:08 | 0:08:12 | |
which extends down almost 100 metres. | 0:08:12 | 0:08:14 | |
I've never seen mirrors on this scale. | 0:08:14 | 0:08:17 | |
This really is cutting-edge technology. | 0:08:36 | 0:08:40 | |
Now this is not absolutely perfect, the surface not completely smooth, | 0:08:40 | 0:08:44 | |
you can see little bubbles here in the glass. | 0:08:44 | 0:08:47 | |
It's not perfect, it's not like a sort of modern mirror. | 0:08:47 | 0:08:51 | |
But the size and the scale is unlike anything | 0:08:51 | 0:08:54 | |
which was really done before, | 0:08:54 | 0:08:56 | |
and compared to the sort of curvy-wurvy things | 0:08:56 | 0:08:59 | |
that most people would know of from centuries earlier, | 0:08:59 | 0:09:02 | |
this was something different. | 0:09:02 | 0:09:05 | |
Because there was nothing, nothing, nothing like this had been developed before. | 0:09:05 | 0:09:10 | |
It allowed people to just stand there | 0:09:10 | 0:09:13 | |
and look at themselves and think, you know, "Who am I?" "This is me." | 0:09:13 | 0:09:16 | |
These mirrors represent the culmination of an idea | 0:09:18 | 0:09:22 | |
that had been emerging in Europe since the Renaissance. | 0:09:22 | 0:09:25 | |
The notion that we are all individuals. | 0:09:28 | 0:09:32 | |
Not members of a class, or a guild, | 0:09:32 | 0:09:35 | |
but defined by our own desires, ambitions, and destinies. | 0:09:35 | 0:09:41 | |
Along with this growing awareness of self came different questions. | 0:09:44 | 0:09:49 | |
What makes ME who I am? | 0:09:49 | 0:09:52 | |
Why do I have these hopes, these fears, these talents, these expectations? | 0:09:52 | 0:09:58 | |
And most importantly of all, what is this "I" anyway? | 0:09:58 | 0:10:03 | |
Throughout history, the technology of the age has stimulated new ways of looking at the world. | 0:10:12 | 0:10:19 | |
I can see a thing which looks a little bit... | 0:10:21 | 0:10:23 | |
I don't know what it is, it looks like some sort of sea creature, possibly a prawn. | 0:10:23 | 0:10:26 | |
New inventions have created metaphors to help us think about what makes us human. | 0:10:28 | 0:10:35 | |
This makes me smile. | 0:10:36 | 0:10:40 | |
In 17th-century France, the philosopher Rene Descartes | 0:10:41 | 0:10:45 | |
was wrestling with the question of human nature. | 0:10:45 | 0:10:48 | |
For inspiration, he drew on a technological wonder of the age - | 0:10:50 | 0:10:55 | |
water-powered mechanical statues. | 0:10:55 | 0:10:58 | |
The story goes that Descartes is wandering through the royal gardens | 0:11:04 | 0:11:09 | |
and he sees a fountain, and in the middle of the fountain there is an enormous statue of Neptune, | 0:11:09 | 0:11:15 | |
which is spouting water, a bit like this. | 0:11:15 | 0:11:17 | |
And this particular Neptune, when you come close, sort of starts to jab at you with the trident. | 0:11:17 | 0:11:22 | |
And Descartes is rather taken by this, and he starts to think, | 0:11:22 | 0:11:26 | |
and he thinks perhaps animals are just a form of automata, | 0:11:26 | 0:11:33 | |
that perhaps a prawn really has some sort of gears in it | 0:11:33 | 0:11:36 | |
with lots of sort of intersecting bits and pieces. | 0:11:36 | 0:11:39 | |
And then he starts wondering, perhaps that's what our bodies are, | 0:11:39 | 0:11:43 | |
they're just sophisticated machines. | 0:11:43 | 0:11:47 | |
For the time this was a very daring idea, | 0:11:48 | 0:11:52 | |
to suggest we are like machines, | 0:11:52 | 0:11:55 | |
but it begged the question, what special quality actually makes us human? | 0:11:55 | 0:12:01 | |
Descartes was a man desperate for certainty, | 0:12:05 | 0:12:09 | |
but this was no time to find it. | 0:12:09 | 0:12:11 | |
17th-century Europe was riven by religious and political conflict. | 0:12:16 | 0:12:21 | |
Old certainties of Church and State were crumbling. | 0:12:24 | 0:12:28 | |
What, thought Descartes, could he trust? | 0:12:28 | 0:12:32 | |
What could he really know? | 0:12:32 | 0:12:36 | |
Descartes is wracked by doubts, | 0:12:38 | 0:12:40 | |
and he wants to find out something he can believe in. | 0:12:40 | 0:12:43 | |
Imagine, says Descartes, a tower, | 0:12:43 | 0:12:47 | |
and the tower is in fact round, but you perceive it as square. | 0:12:47 | 0:12:51 | |
Or, for example, this thing here - from a distance it looks square | 0:12:51 | 0:12:54 | |
but actually when you hold it up it is clearly round. | 0:12:54 | 0:12:57 | |
Your vision has been deceived. | 0:12:57 | 0:12:59 | |
And then Descartes wondered if all his senses were deceiving him. | 0:13:01 | 0:13:06 | |
He could feel the warmth of his fire, | 0:13:08 | 0:13:11 | |
see its light, hear its sound, | 0:13:11 | 0:13:15 | |
but he'd experienced the same sensations in a dream. | 0:13:15 | 0:13:20 | |
So perhaps the whole world he was living in was nothing but an illusion. | 0:13:21 | 0:13:26 | |
Descartes is now beginning to really question everything - | 0:13:30 | 0:13:34 | |
the moon, the sky, the stars. | 0:13:34 | 0:13:37 | |
Perhaps they're all figments of his imagination. But what about maths? | 0:13:37 | 0:13:42 | |
Two plus three - it always equals five, doesn't it? | 0:13:42 | 0:13:45 | |
But maybe there's a demon who's taken possession of his brain. | 0:13:45 | 0:13:49 | |
Descartes is really beginning to doubt everything, | 0:13:49 | 0:13:54 | |
down to the very question of whether he himself existed at all. | 0:13:54 | 0:14:01 | |
And then, finally, he got there. | 0:14:05 | 0:14:07 | |
He realised that the act of doubting implied a doubter. | 0:14:07 | 0:14:11 | |
There was one thing he could be absolutely certain of - | 0:14:11 | 0:14:14 | |
the existence of his own thinking, doubting mind. | 0:14:14 | 0:14:19 | |
He summed it up in a neat philosophical phrase - "I think, therefore I am". | 0:14:19 | 0:14:26 | |
It may be a familiar phrase, but it contains a profound idea - | 0:14:29 | 0:14:35 | |
the claim that the essence of our humanity lies in our thoughts, | 0:14:35 | 0:14:39 | |
our ability to reason. | 0:14:39 | 0:14:41 | |
And reason was to form the basis of a new, experimental science. | 0:14:41 | 0:14:47 | |
Across the Channel, a much more bloody approach to the question of "Who are we?" | 0:14:56 | 0:15:02 | |
was to emerge from a great political clash - | 0:15:02 | 0:15:05 | |
the English Civil War. | 0:15:07 | 0:15:10 | |
Oxford was a key Royalist stronghold. | 0:15:10 | 0:15:13 | |
For some caught up in the action, turmoil spelt opportunity. | 0:15:13 | 0:15:18 | |
Here in Oxford, a young man called Thomas Willis was part way through | 0:15:22 | 0:15:26 | |
his medical training, which in those days lasted an incredible 14 years. | 0:15:26 | 0:15:32 | |
The Civil War interrupted his studies, | 0:15:32 | 0:15:35 | |
which in many ways was a very good thing. | 0:15:35 | 0:15:37 | |
Studying medicine didn't necessarily make you a good doctor, | 0:15:40 | 0:15:46 | |
for one very good reason. | 0:15:46 | 0:15:48 | |
Medical teaching was still largely based on ideas from antiquity. | 0:15:50 | 0:15:56 | |
The disruption of his studies gave Willis the opportunity to investigate the body for himself. | 0:15:56 | 0:16:03 | |
By now, people were exploring the anatomy of the brain. | 0:16:05 | 0:16:10 | |
But still, no-one really knew what it did. | 0:16:10 | 0:16:14 | |
In the mid-1600s, Willis began a ground-breaking series of dissections, | 0:16:17 | 0:16:23 | |
and I'm about to get a privileged glimpse of what he would have seen. | 0:16:23 | 0:16:28 | |
-Ah! -There we are. -Human brain. Isn't it wonderful? -It is. | 0:16:30 | 0:16:34 | |
It is utterly unbelievable when you think that this brain once thought, it reasoned. | 0:16:34 | 0:16:42 | |
It's a unique feature of the universe, really. | 0:16:42 | 0:16:45 | |
When a brain is sort of fresh it's a very different consistency. | 0:16:47 | 0:16:50 | |
Yes, it is, it's... I tell students it's a bit like a badly set jelly. | 0:16:50 | 0:16:53 | |
But presumably if you were to cut that you really would have great difficulties. | 0:16:53 | 0:16:57 | |
Yes, it would just fall to pieces, really. | 0:16:57 | 0:17:00 | |
Willis was one of the first o use a new technique - | 0:17:01 | 0:17:05 | |
preserving brains in alcohol. | 0:17:07 | 0:17:10 | |
This made them firm enough to dissect with great precision. | 0:17:10 | 0:17:14 | |
-You ready to cut this? -Yes, ready to cut. | 0:17:16 | 0:17:18 | |
Isn't it strange? | 0:17:27 | 0:17:28 | |
Ah! | 0:17:32 | 0:17:33 | |
What's really curious is that there's almost no structure or definition to it, is there? | 0:17:33 | 0:17:40 | |
The thing that really catches your eye is the ventricles in the centre, | 0:17:40 | 0:17:44 | |
which were what everybody was preoccupied with before Willis. | 0:17:44 | 0:17:48 | |
And the idea was that this part of the brain may have acted as a sort of pump, | 0:17:48 | 0:17:55 | |
and important activities may have gone on in the fluid that was moving around in the ventricles. | 0:17:55 | 0:18:01 | |
So in a sense all this is just muscle, and all the thought | 0:18:01 | 0:18:04 | |
and the important stuff is taking place in these holes over here? | 0:18:04 | 0:18:07 | |
Yes, and it was Thomas Willis who realised that | 0:18:07 | 0:18:09 | |
the actual structure of the brain was what was critically important. | 0:18:09 | 0:18:13 | |
When Willis looked at animal brains, he concluded our intellect | 0:18:14 | 0:18:19 | |
and thoughts must lie in the parts of the brain animals don't possess. | 0:18:19 | 0:18:25 | |
Thomas Willis was very struck by the corrugated surface of the human brain | 0:18:25 | 0:18:30 | |
as compared to the smooth surface of the sheep, and this enables | 0:18:30 | 0:18:33 | |
a huge volume of cerebral cortex to be contained | 0:18:33 | 0:18:37 | |
within the relatively small volume of the skull. | 0:18:37 | 0:18:40 | |
-And that's where he thought being human resided? -Yes. | 0:18:40 | 0:18:43 | |
You can see there's a ribbon of cortex going over the surface | 0:18:43 | 0:18:47 | |
-of the cerebral hemispheres. -Oh, just there. -Yes, that's right. | 0:18:47 | 0:18:51 | |
And this cortex was where he realised people were likely to have their thoughts. | 0:18:51 | 0:18:57 | |
Willis had established a link between the state of the brain and the state of the mind. | 0:19:00 | 0:19:05 | |
He wrote the first book specifically about the brain. | 0:19:07 | 0:19:12 | |
From now on, anatomical studies would become | 0:19:12 | 0:19:16 | |
one of the great foundations of a scientific explanation of who we are. | 0:19:16 | 0:19:22 | |
Reason was now seen as the pinnacle of human nature. | 0:19:32 | 0:19:36 | |
It had been shaped by philosophical doubt, | 0:19:36 | 0:19:40 | |
and detailed dissections of the brain. | 0:19:40 | 0:19:43 | |
Europe entered a new age, a celebration of the rational mind. | 0:19:45 | 0:19:50 | |
Faith in reason would underpin the growth of trade | 0:19:53 | 0:19:57 | |
and the building of empires. | 0:19:57 | 0:20:00 | |
In 1837, something was causing a stir at London Zoo. | 0:20:08 | 0:20:14 | |
Their first orang-utan, Jenny, | 0:20:16 | 0:20:19 | |
was introduced to an astonished audience. | 0:20:19 | 0:20:22 | |
Exotic animals were being brought to Britain from across the Empire. | 0:20:24 | 0:20:29 | |
Even Queen Victoria herself came calling. | 0:20:34 | 0:20:38 | |
Jenny's arrival would challenge assumptions about what makes us human. | 0:20:42 | 0:20:48 | |
Right, come this way, Michael, I'll introduce you to Batu, | 0:20:48 | 0:20:52 | |
who should be waiting. There he is. | 0:20:52 | 0:20:55 | |
-There he is. Hello. -This is Batu. -Wow, he's big. | 0:20:55 | 0:20:59 | |
-Hello. -Batu's very big. | 0:20:59 | 0:21:01 | |
-What a beautiful face. -Very big and very strong. | 0:21:01 | 0:21:04 | |
-Right. Can I do this? -Yeah, just be careful with the orange. | 0:21:04 | 0:21:07 | |
Yeah. | 0:21:07 | 0:21:09 | |
Oop, very delicately done! | 0:21:09 | 0:21:12 | |
He doesn't want to drop it. | 0:21:12 | 0:21:13 | |
He's even ruder than my kids! | 0:21:15 | 0:21:18 | |
That's rude, stop it. | 0:21:20 | 0:21:21 | |
You could actually see a wonderfully sort of sullen look on his face. | 0:21:21 | 0:21:24 | |
-Yeah. -That look of "Mm, don't like that." | 0:21:24 | 0:21:27 | |
It's a very human expression. | 0:21:27 | 0:21:29 | |
Odd behaviour. Oh, no, that's terrible! | 0:21:31 | 0:21:35 | |
Ah! Ugh! | 0:21:35 | 0:21:37 | |
It's wonderful, this is a, a great sense of independence. | 0:21:37 | 0:21:42 | |
Stop it now. | 0:21:42 | 0:21:44 | |
You've spat at me. | 0:21:44 | 0:21:46 | |
You've played your game. | 0:21:46 | 0:21:48 | |
What are you going to do next? | 0:21:48 | 0:21:50 | |
Oh, that's smelly! | 0:21:52 | 0:21:54 | |
One of the visitors to the zoo was young Charles Darwin. | 0:22:00 | 0:22:05 | |
But this isn't the familiar story about evolution. | 0:22:06 | 0:22:09 | |
His visit to the zoo was part of his lesser-known research - | 0:22:12 | 0:22:16 | |
fascination with animal emotion. | 0:22:19 | 0:22:22 | |
One day, Darwin saw something that really astonished him. | 0:22:24 | 0:22:28 | |
Jenny was playing with the keeper, and the keeper had an apple, | 0:22:30 | 0:22:35 | |
and the keeper was taunting Jenny by waving the apple in front of her but not letting her get hold of it. | 0:22:35 | 0:22:41 | |
And in Darwin's words, "The ape threw herself on her back and cried precisely like a little child." | 0:22:41 | 0:22:47 | |
Darwin became convinced that the expressions of emotion | 0:22:52 | 0:22:56 | |
he saw in Jenny and in humans were the same. | 0:22:56 | 0:23:01 | |
His research developed over 30 years. | 0:23:01 | 0:23:04 | |
Tenderness, shame, joy - | 0:23:07 | 0:23:11 | |
he saw them all in animals. | 0:23:11 | 0:23:14 | |
Darwin's painstaking work led to one of his most important books, | 0:23:18 | 0:23:22 | |
The Expression Of The Emotions In Man And Animals. | 0:23:22 | 0:23:28 | |
It was greeted with alarm and fascination. | 0:23:28 | 0:23:32 | |
Now this is a really incredible book, | 0:23:32 | 0:23:35 | |
partly because of the illustrations, because this is one of the first books ever to include photographs. | 0:23:35 | 0:23:40 | |
And they feature people, people in various states of distress, if you like. | 0:23:40 | 0:23:45 | |
Disconsolate, sad, very sad-looking. | 0:23:45 | 0:23:49 | |
He examines it in almost microscopic detail. | 0:23:49 | 0:23:51 | |
There's a very interesting picture here of a woman's forehead, | 0:23:51 | 0:23:56 | |
and he notices these two lines coming up here, | 0:23:56 | 0:23:58 | |
which were later called in fact the Darwin grief muscle. | 0:23:58 | 0:24:02 | |
What Darwin was undermining in his work was a fundamental belief - | 0:24:04 | 0:24:10 | |
a belief in human uniqueness. | 0:24:11 | 0:24:15 | |
By suggesting a close kinship with animals, | 0:24:24 | 0:24:27 | |
he'd also opened the lid on the rational mind, | 0:24:27 | 0:24:30 | |
hinting at a dark subterranean world of instincts, desires, emotions - | 0:24:30 | 0:24:37 | |
the animal within. | 0:24:37 | 0:24:38 | |
Here was an irony for Victorian science. | 0:24:43 | 0:24:47 | |
The power of reason, which made us unique, | 0:24:47 | 0:24:51 | |
had been turned on ourselves, | 0:24:51 | 0:24:54 | |
and revealed us to be less exalted, less rational, | 0:24:54 | 0:24:58 | |
than had been suspected. | 0:24:58 | 0:25:00 | |
A new side of ourselves was being unearthed, | 0:25:09 | 0:25:14 | |
darker and more dangerous. | 0:25:14 | 0:25:18 | |
In Paris, doctors began to explore this untamed side, | 0:25:21 | 0:25:27 | |
at La Salpetriere. | 0:25:29 | 0:25:31 | |
This imposing-looking building was originally used to store gunpowder, | 0:25:33 | 0:25:38 | |
but then they decided they could put it to better use, | 0:25:38 | 0:25:41 | |
to lock away thousands of people who were regarded as just as | 0:25:41 | 0:25:45 | |
unstable and dangerous - the destitute and the insane. | 0:25:45 | 0:25:49 | |
It had been Europe's most notorious women's asylum, | 0:25:55 | 0:26:00 | |
with nothing to offer but cruel imprisonment. | 0:26:00 | 0:26:04 | |
These are some of the cells where they kept the women, | 0:26:07 | 0:26:11 | |
and these are the original bars behind which they were imprisoned. | 0:26:11 | 0:26:16 | |
And there is something terribly poignant about the idea of thousands of women chained up, | 0:26:16 | 0:26:23 | |
in filthy living conditions, | 0:26:23 | 0:26:26 | |
utterly without any prospect of release, no hope, no hope at all. | 0:26:26 | 0:26:33 | |
But attitudes were changing. | 0:26:37 | 0:26:40 | |
After years of revolution, the asylum had become a place of care | 0:26:40 | 0:26:45 | |
rather than simply imprisonment. | 0:26:45 | 0:26:48 | |
One of its most famous physicians was Jean-Martin Charcot. | 0:26:51 | 0:26:56 | |
Often the best way to understand the normal is to study the abnormal, | 0:26:58 | 0:27:04 | |
and here there were 5,000 troubled minds to study. | 0:27:04 | 0:27:10 | |
Charcot was one of the first people to try and separate out | 0:27:12 | 0:27:16 | |
and categorise different forms of mental and neurological illness. | 0:27:16 | 0:27:20 | |
He took incredibly detailed notes, and he also took lots of photographs. | 0:27:20 | 0:27:26 | |
One condition in particular had been puzzling doctors. | 0:27:28 | 0:27:32 | |
They called it hysteria. | 0:27:34 | 0:27:38 | |
Patients suffered paralysis, seizures, blindness, and violent fits. | 0:27:38 | 0:27:44 | |
Charcot presumed these symptoms were caused by a physical disease, | 0:27:44 | 0:27:49 | |
but then he began to use a remarkable new approach. | 0:27:49 | 0:27:57 | |
Five, six... | 0:27:57 | 0:28:00 | |
Hypnosis. | 0:28:00 | 0:28:01 | |
..Seven... | 0:28:01 | 0:28:04 | |
Charcot found he could induce and relieve | 0:28:04 | 0:28:07 | |
symptoms of hysteria using hypnosis. | 0:28:07 | 0:28:10 | |
And become aware of any feelings of lightness, going up. | 0:28:10 | 0:28:13 | |
It could produce extraordinary effects in the body. | 0:28:13 | 0:28:18 | |
Drifting up and up now, and the balloon really sort of taking off now and bobbing from side to side. | 0:28:18 | 0:28:24 | |
OK, can you see the balloon? | 0:28:24 | 0:28:27 | |
I can, it's a big blue balloon. | 0:28:27 | 0:28:29 | |
-OK, and it's... -A sort of Winnie the Pooh blue balloon. | 0:28:29 | 0:28:32 | |
OK. Well, you get that feeling of the... | 0:28:32 | 0:28:34 | |
'I've tried hypnosis before, but this is the first time it's really worked.' | 0:28:34 | 0:28:41 | |
OK and just notice what's happening there. | 0:28:41 | 0:28:44 | |
'Over the course of an hour, I mysteriously lost co-ordination of my hand.' | 0:28:44 | 0:28:48 | |
And that's even more noticeable in fact, it's becoming really shaky now. | 0:28:48 | 0:28:53 | |
'I had my hands stuck together.' | 0:28:53 | 0:28:57 | |
Knuckles are quite locked. | 0:28:57 | 0:28:58 | |
-Oh! -They are quite locked. | 0:28:58 | 0:29:00 | |
'And most bizarre at all, one side of my visual field was rendered almost useless.' | 0:29:00 | 0:29:06 | |
-Seems a bit fainter. -OK. | 0:29:06 | 0:29:09 | |
And, um, I have a sense of something in there but not really. | 0:29:09 | 0:29:12 | |
-OK. -Not really objects. -OK. | 0:29:12 | 0:29:15 | |
One, two... | 0:29:15 | 0:29:18 | |
'That was extremely odd.' | 0:29:18 | 0:29:20 | |
It was a bit like I was there but I wasn't there, | 0:29:20 | 0:29:24 | |
that he was talking to some other part of me, | 0:29:24 | 0:29:27 | |
and the other part of me was responding. | 0:29:27 | 0:29:30 | |
-Higher, and higher. -And the idea you can just do it with the power of words... | 0:29:30 | 0:29:35 | |
quite strange. | 0:29:35 | 0:29:38 | |
Charcot's observations of hysteria led him towards | 0:29:40 | 0:29:43 | |
a radical conclusion. | 0:29:43 | 0:29:45 | |
If symptoms could be induced or relieved by hypnosis, | 0:29:49 | 0:29:53 | |
then perhaps they were not signs of some pathological disease. | 0:29:53 | 0:29:57 | |
Perhaps they were caused by emotions, | 0:29:57 | 0:30:00 | |
that the patients themselves were not even aware they were feeling. | 0:30:00 | 0:30:04 | |
Charcot never fully grasped what he was dealing with, | 0:30:04 | 0:30:07 | |
what we would now call the unconscious mind. | 0:30:07 | 0:30:11 | |
In amongst the crowds at one of Charcot's famous demonstrations | 0:30:14 | 0:30:18 | |
was a young Austrian doctor, Sigmund Freud, | 0:30:18 | 0:30:22 | |
a man who would famously use the study of hidden emotions | 0:30:24 | 0:30:29 | |
and repressed urges to develop this extraordinary concept | 0:30:29 | 0:30:33 | |
of the unconscious mind. | 0:30:33 | 0:30:35 | |
Freud's ideas would become a significant cultural influence | 0:30:37 | 0:30:42 | |
on the 20th century. | 0:30:42 | 0:30:43 | |
They would join a rising tide of other ideas | 0:30:47 | 0:30:51 | |
that would form a wholly new approach to who we are - psychology. | 0:30:51 | 0:30:57 | |
A less than rational self had been revealed - | 0:31:06 | 0:31:09 | |
by animals brought back from distant lands, | 0:31:12 | 0:31:15 | |
by changing attitudes to mental illness, | 0:31:18 | 0:31:21 | |
and a new door into the unconscious mind. | 0:31:21 | 0:31:25 | |
We could no longer see ourselves simply as creatures of reason. | 0:31:26 | 0:31:31 | |
By the end of the 19th century, | 0:31:42 | 0:31:44 | |
Europe was in the throes of a bold new age of communication. | 0:31:44 | 0:31:48 | |
Thousands of miles of new railway linked the continent's great cities. | 0:31:57 | 0:32:04 | |
Telegraph cables joined people across the globe. | 0:32:04 | 0:32:07 | |
This interconnected world | 0:32:13 | 0:32:16 | |
led to a different way of looking at how the brain works. | 0:32:16 | 0:32:23 | |
This new technology, naturally enough, | 0:32:23 | 0:32:26 | |
inspired new metaphors to describe the nervous system. | 0:32:26 | 0:32:30 | |
For example, if I pinch my finger, then the pain fibres go | 0:32:30 | 0:32:34 | |
down the line, up into my spinal cord and from there to the brain. | 0:32:34 | 0:32:38 | |
The thing is, what happens next? | 0:32:38 | 0:32:41 | |
Well, everyone knew there were complicated signal boxes and junctions up there, | 0:32:41 | 0:32:45 | |
but nobody knew just how they worked. | 0:32:45 | 0:32:48 | |
The Spanish countryside. | 0:32:56 | 0:32:58 | |
Home to a scientist I deeply admire. | 0:33:03 | 0:33:06 | |
He had a passion for art that would shape his future career as a neuroscientist. | 0:33:07 | 0:33:13 | |
His name was Santiago Ramon y Cajal. | 0:33:18 | 0:33:23 | |
When he was a young man, Cajal was obsessed by art. | 0:33:27 | 0:33:31 | |
As he later wrote, "I was gripped by an irresistible mania. | 0:33:31 | 0:33:36 | |
"I painted everything that captivated my sight - earth, foliage, plants, the human form". | 0:33:36 | 0:33:43 | |
He was actually extremely good at putting down on paper what he saw. | 0:33:43 | 0:33:47 | |
Cajal's passion for art | 0:33:49 | 0:33:51 | |
was coupled with a fascination for a new technology - photography. | 0:33:51 | 0:33:57 | |
This is the sort of camera that Cajal would have used. | 0:33:57 | 0:34:01 | |
I've got it lined up on the mountains now. | 0:34:01 | 0:34:03 | |
I've got a photographic plate in here, | 0:34:03 | 0:34:07 | |
which is basically a bit of glass with some photosensitive chemicals on. | 0:34:07 | 0:34:10 | |
And then you lift this. | 0:34:10 | 0:34:12 | |
And you trigger the shutter. | 0:34:12 | 0:34:16 | |
It should take about 20 seconds. | 0:34:16 | 0:34:19 | |
When that's done, this goes down, | 0:34:19 | 0:34:21 | |
and the glass plate you take away with you | 0:34:21 | 0:34:24 | |
off to the mysteries of the darkroom. | 0:34:24 | 0:34:26 | |
It was his twin passions, art and photography, that would shape | 0:34:32 | 0:34:36 | |
his most important discovery - what it is that makes the brain work. | 0:34:36 | 0:34:41 | |
To see, observe, and make things visible | 0:34:45 | 0:34:48 | |
is one of the great challenges of science. | 0:34:48 | 0:34:52 | |
The challenge for neuroscientists | 0:34:52 | 0:34:55 | |
was uncovering the fine structure of the brain. | 0:34:55 | 0:34:58 | |
The task Cajal set himself was to reveal the communication networks | 0:35:00 | 0:35:06 | |
that exist inside our heads. | 0:35:06 | 0:35:08 | |
I've come to the Cajal Institute to see how he did it. | 0:35:10 | 0:35:15 | |
I always feel like I'm getting into surgery again. Great. | 0:35:15 | 0:35:20 | |
-So...mouse? -Yeah, take the brain. | 0:35:20 | 0:35:23 | |
'My first job is to chop up a rather slippery mouse brain.' | 0:35:23 | 0:35:28 | |
Very small. Hey! | 0:35:28 | 0:35:31 | |
'It's trickier than it looks'. | 0:35:31 | 0:35:34 | |
There we go. | 0:35:34 | 0:35:36 | |
-Feels like cutting onions. -Yes! | 0:35:36 | 0:35:38 | |
I'm good at cutting onions. | 0:35:38 | 0:35:40 | |
'The search was on for a stain that would make the mysterious | 0:35:45 | 0:35:48 | |
'structure of the brain visible under the microscope.' | 0:35:48 | 0:35:51 | |
'Cajal was shown a technique using chemicals from the darkroom, | 0:35:55 | 0:35:59 | |
'chemicals that could make brain tissue turn black' | 0:35:59 | 0:36:02 | |
You can see it's a really complicated process, | 0:36:02 | 0:36:07 | |
lots of different stages. | 0:36:07 | 0:36:09 | |
Cajal spent nearly 20 years fiddling away, | 0:36:11 | 0:36:15 | |
doing minor adjustments, just seeking perfection. | 0:36:15 | 0:36:18 | |
The great debate was whether the brain was just a mesh of fibres, | 0:36:19 | 0:36:25 | |
or made of distinct individual units. | 0:36:25 | 0:36:28 | |
Placing stained tissue under the microscope, Cajal became convinced | 0:36:36 | 0:36:42 | |
that there were individual building blocks in the brain - neurons. | 0:36:42 | 0:36:47 | |
Now, that is absolutely beautiful. | 0:36:50 | 0:36:54 | |
That is a neuron. | 0:36:57 | 0:36:58 | |
That is what they were looking for. | 0:36:58 | 0:37:01 | |
Now, the signal goes up here into the cell body, | 0:37:01 | 0:37:04 | |
and then somehow gets distributed by thousands of axons and dendrites, | 0:37:04 | 0:37:10 | |
which link in with all the other neurons in the brain. | 0:37:10 | 0:37:13 | |
Now, only about 1 in 40 of the neurons actually get stained, | 0:37:13 | 0:37:18 | |
and that might sound like a bad thing, but it's actually an incredibly good thing | 0:37:18 | 0:37:22 | |
because if all the neurons here were stained, | 0:37:22 | 0:37:25 | |
then this would be a confusing mass. | 0:37:25 | 0:37:27 | |
You wouldn't be able to make any sense at all. | 0:37:27 | 0:37:29 | |
But because it's just 1 in 40, you can pick them out. | 0:37:30 | 0:37:33 | |
You can see Cajal's artistic influence here - | 0:37:40 | 0:37:43 | |
beautiful drawings of neurons. | 0:37:43 | 0:37:47 | |
He mapped out groups of neurons, | 0:37:52 | 0:37:55 | |
and theorised how they might work - | 0:37:55 | 0:37:58 | |
that nerve impulses travel along them in one direction, | 0:37:59 | 0:38:04 | |
passing from one cell to the next. | 0:38:04 | 0:38:08 | |
Many years later, his theories would be confirmed. | 0:38:11 | 0:38:15 | |
Cajal realised that these neurons are the basic units of the human brain. | 0:38:17 | 0:38:22 | |
We now know there are at least a hundred billion of them, | 0:38:22 | 0:38:25 | |
and all these connecting branches, well, there are trillions of connections. | 0:38:25 | 0:38:29 | |
And somewhere in here, emotion and thought are born. | 0:38:29 | 0:38:35 | |
Somewhere in here is the answer to what makes a human. | 0:38:35 | 0:38:40 | |
Half a century later, the world descended into chaos. | 0:38:54 | 0:38:58 | |
Out of the turmoil of World War II came a secret invention, | 0:39:02 | 0:39:07 | |
built here at Bletchley Park in rural England. | 0:39:07 | 0:39:10 | |
Colossus - the most complex machine that had yet been built. | 0:39:13 | 0:39:21 | |
Designed to crack enemy codes, | 0:39:21 | 0:39:23 | |
it would also shed light on the question of who we are. | 0:39:23 | 0:39:28 | |
What was truly astonishing about Colossus | 0:39:28 | 0:39:32 | |
was the speed at which it could work. | 0:39:32 | 0:39:35 | |
Enemy messages which had previously taken teams of human code-breakers | 0:39:35 | 0:39:39 | |
six weeks to crack could now be done by the machine in six hours. | 0:39:39 | 0:39:44 | |
It must have seemed truly superhuman. | 0:39:44 | 0:39:48 | |
Here was a machine doing something that till now | 0:39:50 | 0:39:54 | |
only the intelligent human mind could do, but much faster. | 0:39:54 | 0:39:59 | |
Once again, the technology of the day | 0:40:00 | 0:40:03 | |
offered a model for how the brain might work. | 0:40:03 | 0:40:07 | |
When you think about it, it's a bit like a primitive brain, | 0:40:10 | 0:40:13 | |
with the valves representing the neurons | 0:40:13 | 0:40:16 | |
and the wiring representing the connecting axons and dendrites. | 0:40:16 | 0:40:20 | |
People had begun to theorise that Cajal's neurons | 0:40:29 | 0:40:32 | |
worked a bit like electronic switches. | 0:40:32 | 0:40:35 | |
If intelligence could be replicated by the on-off switching of a machine, | 0:40:36 | 0:40:41 | |
perhaps the reasoning mind wasn't as uniquely human as we thought. | 0:40:41 | 0:40:46 | |
One of the biggest human brains at Bletchley was Alan Turing, | 0:40:50 | 0:40:54 | |
often called the father of modern computing. | 0:40:54 | 0:40:57 | |
In 1950, he thought of an ingenious way of judging whether computers | 0:40:57 | 0:41:03 | |
show some form of intelligence, by devising a test. | 0:41:03 | 0:41:07 | |
The Turing test is actually more of a Turing question. | 0:41:09 | 0:41:13 | |
The question he asked himself was, | 0:41:13 | 0:41:15 | |
would it be possible to build a computer that was so intelligent | 0:41:15 | 0:41:19 | |
and so good at having chats with humans | 0:41:19 | 0:41:22 | |
that you could be chatting to the machine | 0:41:22 | 0:41:24 | |
and not be aware that you're not actually talking to another person? | 0:41:24 | 0:41:28 | |
Well, he suggested that by the year 2000, we would have cracked the problem. | 0:41:28 | 0:41:33 | |
We are well beyond that point. Let's see. | 0:41:33 | 0:41:36 | |
Right, "what is your name?" | 0:41:37 | 0:41:41 | |
You don't remember? No, I don't remember. | 0:41:41 | 0:41:45 | |
'I'm plugged into one of the more sophisticated programs, | 0:41:45 | 0:41:50 | |
'designed to respond to Turing's challenge.' | 0:41:50 | 0:41:54 | |
OK, let's try some, er, general knowledge. | 0:41:54 | 0:41:56 | |
I mean, computers should be able to do general knowledge. | 0:41:56 | 0:41:59 | |
'It doesn't ever seem to really answer the question.' | 0:41:59 | 0:42:04 | |
Anyway, this is garbage. | 0:42:04 | 0:42:06 | |
'Let's try a different tack - favourite films.' | 0:42:06 | 0:42:10 | |
Transformers 2. | 0:42:10 | 0:42:13 | |
Maybe that is some sort of computer joke. | 0:42:13 | 0:42:15 | |
I can't believe anybody liked Transformers 2. | 0:42:15 | 0:42:18 | |
"What films make you cry?" | 0:42:18 | 0:42:23 | |
"Science fiction and comedy. What do you like?" | 0:42:26 | 0:42:29 | |
Right. It's not very impressive. | 0:42:29 | 0:42:31 | |
I'm not enjoying myself. I'm not having a great conversation here. | 0:42:31 | 0:42:35 | |
I think what you can learn from this is that computers are good at computing, | 0:42:37 | 0:42:41 | |
basically, crunching numbers and things like that. | 0:42:41 | 0:42:44 | |
What they clearly lack is the thing that | 0:42:44 | 0:42:47 | |
really gives any form of human interchange any worth, any value - | 0:42:47 | 0:42:52 | |
feelings like humour, warmth, love, affection, | 0:42:52 | 0:42:56 | |
any of the things that we actually value. | 0:42:56 | 0:43:00 | |
Perhaps too much to expect from a machine. | 0:43:00 | 0:43:04 | |
-Bye bye. -ELECTRONIC VOICE: Goodbye. Goodbye. | 0:43:04 | 0:43:08 | |
For centuries, technology has provided metaphors to explain who we are. | 0:43:11 | 0:43:16 | |
The computer is simply the latest we have seized on. | 0:43:16 | 0:43:20 | |
But its failings reveal that what makes us human | 0:43:20 | 0:43:23 | |
lies in something a machine cannot do. | 0:43:23 | 0:43:25 | |
We are passionate, irrational creatures, | 0:43:28 | 0:43:32 | |
often driven by forces we do not understand. | 0:43:32 | 0:43:35 | |
At the turn of the 20th century, a great nation was coming of age. | 0:43:47 | 0:43:51 | |
The United States. | 0:43:57 | 0:44:00 | |
The land of the free, personal rights and liberties. | 0:44:12 | 0:44:16 | |
This was the perfect home for the thriving discipline | 0:44:19 | 0:44:22 | |
that focused on ourselves as individuals - psychology. | 0:44:22 | 0:44:29 | |
Psychology, as the name implies, originally started out as | 0:44:34 | 0:44:39 | |
the study of the psyche, or mind. | 0:44:39 | 0:44:42 | |
The idea was, you could look into yourself, introspect, | 0:44:42 | 0:44:45 | |
and learn about human nature that way. | 0:44:45 | 0:44:47 | |
However, here in America, a small group of psychologists soon decided | 0:44:47 | 0:44:51 | |
that was nowhere near rigorous or vigorous enough. | 0:44:51 | 0:44:54 | |
They wanted to turn psychology into a science, so they decided to | 0:44:54 | 0:44:59 | |
focus on something they really could measure and manipulate - behaviour. | 0:44:59 | 0:45:04 | |
This approach, called behaviourism, | 0:45:11 | 0:45:14 | |
was transformed into a systematic science | 0:45:14 | 0:45:17 | |
by one of the 20th century's most controversial pioneers. | 0:45:17 | 0:45:22 | |
His name was BF Skinner. | 0:45:23 | 0:45:25 | |
Skinner was convinced that our behaviour | 0:45:28 | 0:45:30 | |
is the product of our environment, | 0:45:30 | 0:45:33 | |
learnt from our experiences. | 0:45:33 | 0:45:35 | |
Since Skinner thought that environment was all-important, | 0:45:40 | 0:45:43 | |
I thought it would be quite interesting to have a look at where he worked. | 0:45:43 | 0:45:47 | |
This is his study. Isn't it wonderful? | 0:45:47 | 0:45:50 | |
This is completely unchanged from when he died, over 20 years ago. | 0:45:52 | 0:45:58 | |
He liked music, so he had this adapted | 0:45:58 | 0:46:02 | |
so that he could just pull that, | 0:46:02 | 0:46:05 | |
and play his music. | 0:46:05 | 0:46:08 | |
This is a man who likes to tinker and adjust things. | 0:46:09 | 0:46:13 | |
This is the bed in which he used to sleep. | 0:46:15 | 0:46:18 | |
It is absolutely filled with his paraphernalia. | 0:46:18 | 0:46:22 | |
It was his passion for gadgets, | 0:46:26 | 0:46:28 | |
for things that he could adapt and change, | 0:46:28 | 0:46:31 | |
that led him to his greatest invention, | 0:46:31 | 0:46:33 | |
a device which is as iconic to behaviourists | 0:46:33 | 0:46:36 | |
as the telescope is to astronomers - | 0:46:36 | 0:46:39 | |
the operant conditioning chamber, or Skinner's box. | 0:46:39 | 0:46:43 | |
Skinner's experiments would reveal something surprising, | 0:46:45 | 0:46:50 | |
and very disturbing, about the human condition. | 0:46:50 | 0:46:55 | |
-This is an operant chamber. -Otherwise known as a Skinner box. | 0:46:57 | 0:47:01 | |
It's a Skinner box. Many people in my field... | 0:47:01 | 0:47:03 | |
'Dr Robert Allan uses similar methods to those Skinner used.' | 0:47:03 | 0:47:07 | |
Here's an area where the pigeon stands. | 0:47:07 | 0:47:10 | |
Their response keys... | 0:47:10 | 0:47:11 | |
'The pigeon has to peck on these buttons. | 0:47:11 | 0:47:14 | |
'If it pecks them in the right order, it gets a reward.' | 0:47:14 | 0:47:18 | |
So what are you going to do to impress me with the pigeon today? | 0:47:18 | 0:47:21 | |
I'll show you. Let's go get a pigeon. | 0:47:21 | 0:47:24 | |
Who's this? | 0:47:24 | 0:47:26 | |
This is G21. | 0:47:26 | 0:47:29 | |
G21? I don't think of pigeons as being smart, I must admit. | 0:47:29 | 0:47:32 | |
-They're very smart. -Is he going to demonstrate just how smart? -Indeed. | 0:47:32 | 0:47:36 | |
-OK. In you go, G21. -OK. | 0:47:36 | 0:47:39 | |
-Ooh. Is he hungry? -It looks like! | 0:47:40 | 0:47:44 | |
'The pigeon has to work out whether the centre light | 0:47:46 | 0:47:50 | |
'shines red or green for longest. | 0:47:50 | 0:47:52 | |
'If it's green, it has to peck the button on the right.' | 0:47:52 | 0:47:56 | |
Oh, he's smart. | 0:47:56 | 0:47:57 | |
Long green means go right. | 0:47:57 | 0:48:00 | |
OK. So will he go right? | 0:48:00 | 0:48:02 | |
-Yes, he will. -You're confident in your bird, aren't you? | 0:48:02 | 0:48:05 | |
-I am very confident. -Ah! Very good. -There you go. | 0:48:05 | 0:48:08 | |
If it was red that was longest, he has to go the other way. | 0:48:08 | 0:48:12 | |
Now he has to go left. | 0:48:12 | 0:48:14 | |
-OK. -Watch. | 0:48:14 | 0:48:15 | |
Yes, he's done it. He's very good, I have to say. | 0:48:15 | 0:48:18 | |
I'm good at predicting behaviour. | 0:48:18 | 0:48:20 | |
Well done, G21. Go, boy, go. | 0:48:20 | 0:48:24 | |
'What these experiments showed was how easily behaviour could be learned, even manipulated.' | 0:48:24 | 0:48:30 | |
'I was about to see how quickly this can happen.' | 0:48:36 | 0:48:40 | |
We are going to shape the turning response | 0:48:40 | 0:48:44 | |
by delivering reinforcers for his approximate behaviour. | 0:48:44 | 0:48:49 | |
-You're going to make him sort of turn in a circle, are you? -That's correct. That's better said! | 0:48:49 | 0:48:55 | |
'Each time the pigeon turns left, | 0:48:56 | 0:48:59 | |
'Dr Allan delivers food to reinforce that behaviour, | 0:48:59 | 0:49:03 | |
'until after just 20 minutes, | 0:49:03 | 0:49:06 | |
'he has the pigeon dancing round in circles.' | 0:49:06 | 0:49:09 | |
'Pigeons and birdseed may not look controversial, | 0:49:12 | 0:49:16 | |
'but what was so shocking at the time | 0:49:16 | 0:49:18 | |
'was that Skinner applied his ideas to human behaviour.' | 0:49:18 | 0:49:22 | |
What Skinner was saying is that we are in many ways like pigeons - | 0:49:24 | 0:49:29 | |
that we are the product of the numerous interactions we have with our environment, | 0:49:29 | 0:49:33 | |
whether it's falling in love, the job, the friends you make, | 0:49:33 | 0:49:37 | |
all these things which appear to be decisions are actually | 0:49:37 | 0:49:40 | |
the product of things that have happened to us in the past. | 0:49:40 | 0:49:43 | |
We can no more exercise free will than this pigeon | 0:49:43 | 0:49:47 | |
can decide whether to peck, or indeed, turn in a circle. | 0:49:47 | 0:49:50 | |
Skinner was convinced his discovery could be used to benefit mankind. | 0:49:55 | 0:50:01 | |
We could change people's behaviour for the better by changing their environment. | 0:50:05 | 0:50:11 | |
But in the context of the Cold War, the ability to control behaviour | 0:50:13 | 0:50:18 | |
left some people fearful it could be misused, | 0:50:18 | 0:50:22 | |
because in Skinner's view, free will was nothing but an illusion. | 0:50:22 | 0:50:27 | |
Now, most of us believe that being able to make choices is an important part of being human, | 0:50:32 | 0:50:37 | |
but here was Skinner saying that that was an illusion, | 0:50:37 | 0:50:40 | |
that actually it was a piece of pre-scientific nonsense, | 0:50:40 | 0:50:43 | |
akin to believing in a flat Earth or demonic possession. | 0:50:43 | 0:50:47 | |
You can imagine how popular that message was in the land of the free and the rugged individual. | 0:50:47 | 0:50:53 | |
Behaviourism was soon joined by other approaches, | 0:50:56 | 0:51:00 | |
through the 1960s and beyond. | 0:51:00 | 0:51:02 | |
There were new drugs, therapies, personality tests, | 0:51:04 | 0:51:08 | |
new ways to measure our thoughts, memories and emotions. | 0:51:08 | 0:51:12 | |
Psychology has grown into a vast science, | 0:51:14 | 0:51:18 | |
as diverse and multi-faceted as we are. | 0:51:18 | 0:51:22 | |
So, who are we? | 0:51:29 | 0:51:32 | |
Well, we are the product of our genes and our environment. | 0:51:33 | 0:51:38 | |
Billions of neurochemical reactions | 0:51:45 | 0:51:49 | |
firing every single second of our lives. | 0:51:49 | 0:51:52 | |
In us, reason and emotion are frequently at war. | 0:51:55 | 0:51:59 | |
Thoughts, passions, memories and behaviour | 0:52:03 | 0:52:07 | |
emerge unbidden out of the depths. | 0:52:07 | 0:52:10 | |
Brain scans reveal many parts of the brain | 0:52:10 | 0:52:13 | |
operating outside our conscious awareness. | 0:52:13 | 0:52:16 | |
We are the product of numerous daily interactions, | 0:52:27 | 0:52:31 | |
and the quest to understand the essence of who we are | 0:52:33 | 0:52:39 | |
has revealed something fascinating going on inside our heads, | 0:52:39 | 0:52:43 | |
something none of us are ever aware of. | 0:52:43 | 0:52:46 | |
I can show you what I mean with a famous visual illusion. | 0:52:48 | 0:52:54 | |
HE LAUGHS | 0:52:57 | 0:52:59 | |
'It's called the Ames room.' | 0:52:59 | 0:53:02 | |
That is so bizarre! | 0:53:02 | 0:53:05 | |
Clearly, what I'm seeing is, | 0:53:05 | 0:53:07 | |
I'm seeing a very, very tall person over there | 0:53:07 | 0:53:11 | |
and a short person over there, and when they swap over, | 0:53:11 | 0:53:14 | |
there's a moment when my brain just goes clunk. | 0:53:14 | 0:53:18 | |
I absolutely know this is an illusion, but my brain just won't let me see through the illusion. | 0:53:19 | 0:53:25 | |
So how's it done? | 0:53:29 | 0:53:30 | |
Well, if you come over this way, | 0:53:30 | 0:53:33 | |
it's really obvious. | 0:53:33 | 0:53:35 | |
Hi, there. Thank you. | 0:53:35 | 0:53:39 | |
OK, so essentially, | 0:53:39 | 0:53:41 | |
the room really dips downhill. Lots of space above my head. | 0:53:41 | 0:53:44 | |
There is a sharply sloping floor. | 0:53:44 | 0:53:47 | |
As I march up, the room begins to narrow until I'm really crunched into the corner. | 0:53:47 | 0:53:53 | |
There's very little space between the ground and the top here, | 0:53:53 | 0:53:56 | |
and that's how the illusion is created. | 0:53:56 | 0:53:59 | |
Essentially, the room is a trapezoid. | 0:53:59 | 0:54:04 | |
The Ames room shows us something very important | 0:54:06 | 0:54:09 | |
about how the brain is working. | 0:54:09 | 0:54:11 | |
There's part of my brain which knows the rules of a room. | 0:54:12 | 0:54:17 | |
It has assumptions, models built in there, | 0:54:17 | 0:54:20 | |
and it knows, based on experience, | 0:54:20 | 0:54:23 | |
that normally in rooms, the ceiling and the floor is parallel, | 0:54:23 | 0:54:27 | |
and that the walls are at a right angle. | 0:54:27 | 0:54:30 | |
From one particular viewpoint, | 0:54:30 | 0:54:33 | |
the room looks like it fits that mental model, | 0:54:33 | 0:54:36 | |
and the brain has such a powerful belief that this quirky-shaped room | 0:54:36 | 0:54:41 | |
is normal that people appear to have changed size. | 0:54:41 | 0:54:45 | |
This illusion reveals something fundamental about how the brain works. | 0:54:48 | 0:54:53 | |
Our perception of reality is not just based on what is out there, | 0:54:54 | 0:54:59 | |
but it is also partially constructed. | 0:54:59 | 0:55:02 | |
We have these models running in our head, | 0:55:02 | 0:55:05 | |
and they are constantly being tested against the evidence of our senses. | 0:55:05 | 0:55:09 | |
This process of building models in our heads is happening from the moment we are born. | 0:55:17 | 0:55:22 | |
This child is using her senses to find out about the world. | 0:55:24 | 0:55:28 | |
Is that person in the mirror another baby, or is it me? | 0:55:31 | 0:55:34 | |
Why does that thing make a noise when I shake it? | 0:55:36 | 0:55:40 | |
What she's doing is constantly learning | 0:55:40 | 0:55:43 | |
by testing everything around her. | 0:55:43 | 0:55:46 | |
Thousands of little experiments like these | 0:55:48 | 0:55:51 | |
will create her unconscious assumptions. | 0:55:51 | 0:55:53 | |
They'll build the models that shape her view of the world. | 0:55:56 | 0:56:01 | |
That's how she will be able to make her way through life. | 0:56:01 | 0:56:04 | |
It is very charming when you think that in a way, what she's doing now | 0:56:10 | 0:56:14 | |
is acting rather like a mini-scientist. | 0:56:14 | 0:56:17 | |
She's investigating the world, she's forming her theories, | 0:56:17 | 0:56:22 | |
her hypotheses, and she's testing them against reality. | 0:56:22 | 0:56:26 | |
'And that, in a sense, is what science is, and it's going on | 0:56:26 | 0:56:30 | |
'inside each and every one of us from the moment we're born.' | 0:56:30 | 0:56:35 | |
Is that right, Chloe? Is that right? | 0:56:35 | 0:56:37 | |
It is. | 0:56:37 | 0:56:39 | |
In this programme, we've seen that humans are creatures of both rational thought, | 0:56:44 | 0:56:51 | |
and emotional turmoil. | 0:56:51 | 0:56:53 | |
And in this series, I've shown how science too | 0:56:55 | 0:56:59 | |
has been shaped by reason and emotion, | 0:56:59 | 0:57:01 | |
as well as by the tumult of the world in which it operates. | 0:57:01 | 0:57:07 | |
Its intellectual achievements have transformed our lives. | 0:57:09 | 0:57:13 | |
But it hasn't been straightforward. | 0:57:21 | 0:57:25 | |
The story of science is a messy one, | 0:57:25 | 0:57:28 | |
wrapped up in politics, belief, money and rivalry, | 0:57:28 | 0:57:33 | |
proof forever shaped by power and passion. | 0:57:33 | 0:57:36 | |
Science is a very human activity, | 0:57:40 | 0:57:44 | |
something we unconsciously do every day - | 0:57:44 | 0:57:48 | |
observing the world, building mental models, and testing them. | 0:57:48 | 0:57:54 | |
But it's when we deliberately started using the scientific method | 0:57:55 | 0:57:59 | |
that we went way beyond our individual capabilities. | 0:57:59 | 0:58:03 | |
I think science is the greatest collective endeavour | 0:58:05 | 0:58:09 | |
that mankind has ever undertaken. | 0:58:09 | 0:58:12 | |
Over the last few thousand years, | 0:58:18 | 0:58:21 | |
the human brain has not changed at all. | 0:58:21 | 0:58:23 | |
Evolution does not go that fast. | 0:58:23 | 0:58:25 | |
But what has changed is our understanding of the world. | 0:58:25 | 0:58:29 | |
We don't have to rely simply on the wisdom of our own brains. | 0:58:29 | 0:58:33 | |
SHE GURGLES | 0:58:33 | 0:58:34 | |
We have language, we have literature, | 0:58:34 | 0:58:37 | |
and now we have computers, and that links us all together. | 0:58:37 | 0:58:41 | |
That gives us, if you like, | 0:58:41 | 0:58:43 | |
the wisdom of all those who have gone before. | 0:58:43 | 0:58:46 | |
Subtitles by Red Bee Media Ltd | 0:58:56 | 0:59:00 | |
E-mail [email protected] | 0:59:00 | 0:59:03 |